Thinking that one's life was in danger: perceived life threat in individuals directly or indirectly exposed to terror

Abstract

Perceived life threat may play a central role in the development and maintenance of PTSD in people directly as well as indirectly exposed to terror. Moderating perceptions of having been in serious danger may be an appropriate approach to the prevention and treatment of PTSD.

Association between feeling threatened by a terrorist attack and subjective health: a web survey a week after the attacks of 22 March 2016 in Belgium

“…This finding is in line with previous research indicating that perception of threat, rather than real risk, is the most important predictor of self-reported health problems and that people perceiving high threat are therefore a vulnerable group for reporting and possibly even for developing certain health problems (Blackburn & Epel, 2012; Heir et al, 2016; Nissen et al, 2015). …”

“…It can be therefore hypothesized that the months preceding the attacks, during which Belgium was in a state of highest alert after the attacks in Paris in November 2015, could already have primed a negative impact on the population. Other studies also found that by anticipating disasters, peoples’ fears can worsen existing symptoms (Schuster et al, 2001) and that an on-going perceived threat may engender health problems (Heir et al, 2016; Nissen et al, 2015). …”

“…Rather than objective factors, such as proximity to the terrorist attack, the perception of threat has a psychological effect (Ford et al, 2007; Hansen, Nissen, & Heir, 2013; Nissen, Birkeland Nielsen, Solberg, Bang Hansen, & Heir, 2015). Although several studies have found an association between exposure and post-traumatic symptoms (Hansen et al, 2013; Heir, Blix, & Knatten, 2016), other studies did not find such association (Bleich et al, 2003; Ford et al, 2007). Subjective perception of threat is a good predictor of probable PTSD (Cukor et al, 2011).…”

“…Notwithstanding the evidence of the impact of terroristic attacks, most studies are conducted in the US and only a small number of European studies deal with the more recent wave of terrorist attacks (Goodwin, Kaniasty, Sun, & Ben-Ezra, 2017; Hansen et al, 2017, 2013; Heir et al, 2016). As this particular wave of terrorism in Europe is rather recent, the evidence of the impact of terrorism on the population is not so well documented.…”

Aggression toward teachers, interaction with school shooting media, and secondary trauma: Lockdown drills as moderator

“…Despite the possibility that individuals can develop PTSD without directly experiencing the traumatic event, the criteria do not indicate whether indirect exposure can be through the media (e.g., watching the event unfold on television) or repetitive exposure to potential threats and harm via lockdown drills and related simulations. Researchers have emphasized the importance of the perceived threat of harm, which typically increases in relation to the proximity of the traumatic event (Heir et al, ). Silver, Holman, McIntosh, Poulin, and Gil‐Rivas () found similar results when studying a national probability sample of adults following the September 11th terrorist attacks against the World Trade Center.…”