“…where , ℎ, and ∞ represent the outward normal heat flux, the HTC, and the surrounding temperature at the surface, respectively. The surrounding temperature ∞ can be defined as the combustion gas temperature gas at the combustion-side top surface of the piston head, the cooling water temperature at the side, and the oil temperature oil at the underside and cooling gallery [31]. In order to find an accurate solution to the inverse heat conduction problem, the finite element (FE) method is employed in this study.…”