‘There was no mercy at all’: Hooliganism, homosexuality and the opening-up of China

Abstract

This article discusses the Chinese state crackdown on homosexuality during the reform period through the narratives of homosexual men who were arrested and sentenced to re-education through labour at that time. Utilising the work on morality and law by Zygmunt Bauman, it is shown that Deng Xiaoping’s proposal in 1979 to advance Chinese socialist spiritual civilisation was operationalised through a wide variety of procedures, including the use of the criminal justice system through the new crime of ‘hooliganism’. It was understood that the object infringed upon by hooliganism was the social order itself, through acts that violated the moral principles of Chinese society. Legislated in 1979, hooliganism was an obvious tool for the regulation of sexuality. Those engaged in hooliganism had to be severely punished. Seven men of the 31 men in our study were arrested and six were sentenced to re-education through labour.

Representing and Regulating: How Gay Men Have Been Incorporated Into China’s Evolving HIV/AIDS Policies, 1987–2019

“…In the 1990s, HIV/AIDS prevention was likely to subject gay men to police crackdowns. This finding corroborates previous studies finding that until 1997, gay men, categorized as hooligans, were arrested and sentenced (Chou, 2001; Jones, 2007; Ruan & Tsai, 1988) both criminally and administratively for “disrupting the social and public order” (Li, 2006; Wong, 2015; Worth et al, 2018; Wu, 2003). In the early 2000s, after the decriminalization of homosexuality, homosexual behaviors remained prohibited in the reeducation camps.…”

“…In China, two prominent apparatuses (Chou, 2001; Jeffreys & Su, 2017; see also Foucault, 1978) have been used to regulate gay men: hooliganism and mental disorder. After 1949, although no laws prohibited homosexuality (Gil, 1992; Jones, 2007; Li, 2006; Miles-Johnson & Wang, 2018; Wu, 2003), the umbrella term (Jeffreys & Su, 2017; Wu, 2003) hooliganism was derived from Chinese Criminal Law (Gil, 1992; Jones, 2007; Worth et al, 2018). Accordingly, homosexuality was prohibited, and gay men were arrested and sentenced (Chou, 2001; Jones, 2007; Ruan & Tsai, 1988) for disrupting the social and public order criminally and administratively (Li, 2006; Wong, 2015; Worth et al, 2018; Wu, 2003).…”

“…After 1949, although no laws prohibited homosexuality (Gil, 1992; Jones, 2007; Li, 2006; Miles-Johnson & Wang, 2018; Wu, 2003), the umbrella term (Jeffreys & Su, 2017; Wu, 2003) hooliganism was derived from Chinese Criminal Law (Gil, 1992; Jones, 2007; Worth et al, 2018). Accordingly, homosexuality was prohibited, and gay men were arrested and sentenced (Chou, 2001; Jones, 2007; Ruan & Tsai, 1988) for disrupting the social and public order criminally and administratively (Li, 2006; Wong, 2015; Worth et al, 2018; Wu, 2003). Gay men were also likely forced to be reeducated in the labor reform camps (Chou, 2001; Worth et al, 2018) until 1997.…”

“…Accordingly, homosexuality was prohibited, and gay men were arrested and sentenced (Chou, 2001; Jones, 2007; Ruan & Tsai, 1988) for disrupting the social and public order criminally and administratively (Li, 2006; Wong, 2015; Worth et al, 2018; Wu, 2003). Gay men were also likely forced to be reeducated in the labor reform camps (Chou, 2001; Worth et al, 2018) until 1997. Only in 2013 were China’s labor reeducation camps abolished.…”

Attitudes Towards Homosexuality and Women in Male-Authored Writing: An analysis of Zijin Chen’s Detective Fiction

“…In the Criminal Law of the People's Republic of China in 1979, homosexuality was tagged with 'crime of hooliganism' (Gao 1995). As a consequence, gay men used to be chastised and imprisoned (Chou 2001, Li 2006, Jones 2007, Kong 2016, and they were repressed during the Cultural Revolution (1966)(1967)(1968)(1969)(1970)(1971)(1972)(1973)(1974)(1975)(1976) and even the Reform and Opening-up (1978Opening-up ( -1985 period (Worth et al 2017(Worth et al , 2019. Therefore, I postulate that born in the 1980s, Chen was ineluctably brainwashed by the discriminatory policies at puberty.…”