Theory of the electrode effect

Hoppel, W. A.

doi:10.1016/0021-9169(67)90215-2

Cited by 79 publications

(35 citation statements)

References 4 publications

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“…The experiments of Crozier and Biles [1966] and calculations of Hoppel [1967] show that in nonturbulent stable conditions, radon is trapped at lower levels when wind speeds are less than 1 m s -l and it causes anomalous ionization and the reverse electrode effect. In our calculations we start with nearly nonturbulent conditions characterized by an eddy diffusivity K(z) at 1 m of approximately 0.01 m 2 s -I (X = 1 m 2 s-l), which corresponds to an air velocity of approximately 0.5 m s -• [Tuomi, 1982].…”

Section: Resultsmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…Moreover, it emphasizes the fact that part of the current at the surface is carried by the turbulent diffusiom A combined effect of the nonturbulent electrode effect and trapped radon radioactivity is the downward gradient of positive conductivity and the upward gradient of negative conductivity. Hoppel [1967] has shown that this layer is quite shallow.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 96%

“…However, in the atmosphere, the phenomenon is generally more complicated because of the presence of the aerosol particles, nonuniform ionization, and turbulence. For example, the increased ionization rate at the surface causes changes in the net space charge distribution [Hoppel, 1967]. Further, the convective mixing of space charge in the normal turbulent atmosphere is very effective in dispersing the space charge layer, because mixing tries to smooth out gradients and maintain the homogeneous situation.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

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Vertical profiles of atmospheric electric parameters close to ground

Kulkarni¹,

Kamra²

2001

J. Geophys. Res.

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Abstract. The ion-aerosol balance equations have been solved for different mixing strengths and two types of ionization profile to get vertical profiles of atmospheric electric parameters close to the Earth's surface. The inclusion of surface radioactivity in the model causes the decrease in electric field to be more intense at lower levels than at higher levels, an increase in the asymptotic value of the field, and an increase in the space charge density gradient. When the mixing of atmosphere is very weak, a reverse electrode effect is observed under the condition of enhanced ionization due to trapped radon, with the decrease in ion densities above 1 m. However, with an increase in eddy diffusivity, the positive ion concentration decreases, and the negative ion concentration increases with increasing height above the diffusion layer. Further increase in eddy diffusivity causes the profiles to become almost similar to those for which the ionization is constant with height.

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Section: Resultsmentioning

confidence: 99%

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 96%

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

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Vertical profiles of atmospheric electric parameters close to ground

Kulkarni¹,

Kamra²

2001

J. Geophys. Res.

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“…The observed lower concentration of negative 1.5-1.8 nm ions compared to positive ions is mainly caused by the lower sensitivity of the negative polarity of NAIS to detect these ions, which results from slightly higher electrometer noise levels in corresponding channels. On the other hand, the lower negative ion concentration can also be partly related to the electrode effect, causing the accumulation of positive ions close to the Earth's surface (Hoppel, 1967).…”

Section: Concentrations Of Sub-3nm Clustersmentioning

confidence: 99%

High concentrations of sub-3nm clusters and frequent new particle formation observed in the Po Valley, Italy, during the PEGASOS 2012 campaign

et al. 2016

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Abstract. The concentrations of neutral and charged sub3nm clusters and their connection to new particle formation (NPF) were investigated during the PEGASOS campaign (7 June-9 July 2012) at the San Pietro Capofiume measurement station in the Po Valley, Italy. Continuous high concentrations of sub-3nm clusters were detected during the measurement period, although the condensation sink was relatively high (median value 1.1×10 −2 s −1 ). The median cluster concentrations were 2140 and 7980 cm −3 in the size bins of 1.5-1.8 and 1.8-3 nm, and the majority of them were electrically neutral. NPF events were observed during the measurement period frequently, on 86 % of the days. The median growth rates of clusters during the events were 4.3, 6.0 and 7.2 nm h −1 in the size ranges of 1.5-3, 3-7 and 7-20 nm. The median formation rate of 1.6 nm clusters was high, 45 cm −3 s −1 , and it exceeded the median formation rate of 2 nm clusters by 1 order of magnitude. The ion-induced nucleation fraction was low; the median values were 0.7 % at 1.6 nm and 3.0 % at 2 nm. On NPF event days the neutral cluster concentration had a maximum around 09:00 (local winter time), which was absent on a non-event day. The increase in the cluster concentrations in the morning coincided with the increase in the boundary layer height. At the same time radiation, temperature and SO 2 concentration increased, and RH and condensation sink decreased. The concentrations of neutral and charged clusters were observed to have a positive correlation with sulfuric acid proxy, indicating the significance of sulfuric acid for the cluster formation in San Pietro Capofiume. The condensation sink had a negative correlation with the concentration of charged clusters but no clear relation to the neutral cluster concentration. This finding, together with back-trajectory analysis, suggests that the precursor vapors of the clusters and background aerosol particles, acting as their sink, have possibly originated from the same sources, including e.g., power plants and industrial areas in the Po Valley.

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“…This decreases the conductivity and increase the vertical electric field by a factor of about two. This is called the electrode effect (Hopple, 1967). A BL falling toward the Earth's surface during storm conditions will thus experience an increasing upward force in about the last meter.…”

Section: Ball Lightning Motionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Solid charged-core model of ball lightning

Muldrew¹

2010

Ann. Geophys.

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Abstract. In this study, ball lightning (BL) is assumed to have a solid, positively-charged core. According to this underlying assumption, the core is surrounded by a thin electron layer with a charge nearly equal in magnitude to that of the core. A vacuum exists between the core and the electron layer containing an intense electromagnetic (EM) field which is reflected and guided by the electron layer. The microwave EM field applies a ponderomotive force (radiation pressure) to the electrons preventing them from falling into the core. The energetic electrons ionize the air next to the electron layer forming a neutral plasma layer. The electricfield distributions and their associated frequencies in the ball are determined by applying boundary conditions to a differential equation given by Stratton (1941). It is then shown that the electron and plasma layers are sufficiently thick and dense to completely trap and guide the EM field. This model of BL is exceptional in that it can explain all or nearly all of the peculiar characteristics of BL. The ES energy associated with the core charge can be extremely large which can explain the observations that occasionally BL contains enormous energy. The mass of the core prevents the BL from rising like a helium-filled balloon -a problem with most plasma and burning-gas models. The positively charged core keeps the negatively charged electron layer from diffusing away, i.e. it holds the ball together; other models do not have a mechanism to do this. The high electrical charges on the core and in the electron layer explains why some people have been electrocuted by BL. Experiments indicate that BL radiates microwaves upon exploding and this is consistent with the model. The fact that this novel model of BL can explain these and other observations is strong evidence that the model should be taken seriously.

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Theory of the electrode effect

Cited by 79 publications

References 4 publications

Vertical profiles of atmospheric electric parameters close to ground

Vertical profiles of atmospheric electric parameters close to ground

High concentrations of sub-3nm clusters and frequent new particle formation observed in the Po Valley, Italy, during the PEGASOS 2012 campaign

Solid charged-core model of ball lightning

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