Theory of Mind in Offending: A Systematic Review

Abstract

Theory of mind (ToM) impairment is associated with poor social functioning in some psychological disorders (e.g., autism and schizophrenia). ToM deficits have also been linked with offending behavior in the theoretical literature. However, no review has examined the empirical evidence for such a link. We carried out a systematic review to provide a critical overview of studies involving ToM ability in offenders. We included studies published in English that used an instrument to measure at least one aspect of ToM. Twenty-eight eligible studies were identified and coded. Our findings reveal a generally mixed literature. Taking study quality into account, our findings suggest that offenders and nonoffenders do not differ in their first-order ToM. For second-order ToM, findings are mixed, even when only the highest quality studies are examined. Studies exploring advanced ToM showed mixed results overall, though the highest quality research appeared to indicate that offenders have impairments in advanced ToM which means that they may have difficulty understanding various mental states such as pretense, white lies, irony, double bluffs, and sarcasm. We suggest that well-controlled future studies, which also measure other facets of ToM (e.g., distinguishing between cognitive and affective ToM or examining ToM content), are needed to fully understand the role of ToM in offending.

The mediating role of reflective functioning and general psychopathology in the relationship between childhood conduct disorder and adult aggression among offenders

“…For instance, executive functioning impairments, common to various childhood and adolescent mental health conditions such as oppositional defiant disorder (ODD), attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and CD (Figueiredo, Ramião, Barroso, & Barbosa, 2022), have been linked to RF deficits in both healthy and clinical populations (Ogilvie, Stewart, Chan, & Shum, 2011;Rutherford et al, 2018). Constructs that are related to RF, such as empathy and theory of mind (ToM) during childhood and adolescence, have been also found to predict later symptoms of ASPD, psychopathy, violence, and offending behavior (Frick & White, 2008;Galán, Choe, Forbes, & Shaw, 2017;Karoğlu, Ferguson, & Ó Ciardha, 2022;Rhee et al, 2021). However, while ToM represents the cognitive capacity to understand others' mental states, and empathy incorporates an emotional dimension to this understanding, RF encompasses both cognitive and affective processes, enabling individuals to reflect upon and interpret behaviors considering underlying mental states.…”

Detecting dodgy behaviour: The role of autism, autistic traits and theory of mind

“…Consequently, as already noted, we cannot rule out the possibility that such characteristics may, under some conditions, be related to dodginess detection. Fifth, as emphasised by Karoĝlu et al (2021) , it will be important to distinguish the roles of cognitive and affective components of ToM, both of which are likely captured to some degree in some items of our ToM measure. Sixth, the relationships between the indices of dodginess discrimination and ToM are, of course, correlational in nature and thus our research must be seen as a starting point for the systematic investigation of these issues.…”

“… Baron-Cohen, 2001 ; Brewer & Young, 2015 ; Happé, 1994 ). A recent systematic review ( Karoĝlu et al, 2021 ) focused on the ToM abilities of criminal offenders and non-offenders and, while highlighting mixed findings and a variety of methodological issues (e.g. sample sizes, cognitive ability controls, psychometric integrity of ToM measures), concluded that impairments in ToM that may underpin problematic interactions with other people appear to be more prevalent in criminal offenders.…”

Violent Offending in Males With or Without Schizophrenia: A Role for Social Cognition?

“…Multiple testing was dealt with by applying the Benjamini–Hochberg procedure 49 to the main analyses (EmoBio and MASC subscores, respectively), and Holm’s sequential Bonferroni procedure 50 to post hoc group comparisons. Effect sizes were calculated for both the main (eta 2 ) and post hoc (Hedge’s g ) analyses. We used raw scores for the statistical analyses, but converted raw scores to standard scores using the mean and standard deviation of the HCs for visualization purposes.…”

“…An interesting avenue in that matter is their social cognitive profile, as research suggests that social cognitive impairment may be central to persons with an offender history. 2 Reduced social cognition has been reported for violent populations 3 , 4 and is present in persons with schizophrenia 5 across geographical regions and cultural contexts. 6 …”