Theory and measurement of attitudes and opinions.

Abstract

One of the most important (and confused) subjects in the interlocking and overlapping fields of sociology and social psychology is the category of motivation. It is apparent that human movements are possible only when appropriate action-patterns exist and that these patterns must be either inherited or acquired. It is also apparent that the functioning of both human and non-human animals is largely motivated by action-patterns that seem to be products of germinal development. These patterns are present at birth or soon after, relatively stable and unmodifiable, common to the species, usually adaptive and largely unlearned. If they are relatively simple, like grasping, knee-jerking, winking, they are "reflexes"; if they are more complex like crying, suckling-swallowing, assimilating-excreting, manipulating, they are " instincts." Just how complex such responses must be to be " instincts " is undetermined and perhaps indeterminable. The safest procedure, probably, is to call them instinctive, innate, native, germinal, and let it go at that.On the other hand, it is equally obvious that most human cultural behavior is motivated by action-patterns acquired through social conditioning. It is his greater capacity for building new action-patterns that distinguishes the human animal from the non-human animal. Following Thorndike, it is customary to describe the innate type of behavior as original and the second type as acquired. Thus, while vocalizing is an original trait of man, speaking a language is an acquired trait; hunger, putting-objects-in-mouth-and-swallowing, is natural, but seeking specific foods is a culture-trait; sex activity is native, but particular love-making and marriage-family complexes are acquired action-patterns. The most significant human acquisitions are the action-patterns we call language, vocal symbolization, thinking, rt consciousness." These habits, like all other > action-patterns, are neuromuscular mechanisms. Thinking is acting; "consciousness " is movement of specific parts of the organism.

Attitudes of Ethiopian college students toward people with visible disabilities

“…The salient characteristic may be a missing limb or other visible disfigurement, and the response of the non-disabled individual has been socially taught or conditioned regarding a PWD (Harper, 1995;Wright, 1980). The visible "difference" of a disability is often the stimulus needed to elicit acquired and conditioned actions (Bain, 1930;Richardson 1970), which in Ethiopia has taken the form of negative attitudes, displayed in terms of exclusion from social activities and stigma for disclosing disabilities. However, because attitudes are also acquired and learned, change is also possible through teaching, such as educational interventions (Bain, 1930;Hunt & Hunt, 2004).…”

“…The visible "difference" of a disability is often the stimulus needed to elicit acquired and conditioned actions (Bain, 1930;Richardson 1970), which in Ethiopia has taken the form of negative attitudes, displayed in terms of exclusion from social activities and stigma for disclosing disabilities. However, because attitudes are also acquired and learned, change is also possible through teaching, such as educational interventions (Bain, 1930;Hunt & Hunt, 2004). Research has indicated that positive attitudes are achievable through educational interventions and contact with…”

Assessment for Learning Within and Beyond the Classroom

“…Measuring attitudes have been developed and done by Murphy and Murphy (1931), Bain (1930), Vetter (1930, Katz et al (1931), Allport (1929), Likert (1932) and other researchers. There are many researchers who have surveyed and attempted to measure attitudes.…”

Psychophysical measurement methods.

“…Workers in the social sciences have been quick to take note of Thurstone's methods; see, for example, the comments of Rice (119), replied to by Thurstone (148). Brief reviews are to be found in Bain (4) and Droba (36) ; the latter contains additional references, the present bibliography listing mostly the more purely theoretical articles. The relevant items on our list are: Thurstone…”

“…Equal' judgment-times were significantly longer than those for difference judgments, and correct judgments were quicker than incorrect ones. When time curves were plotted in a manner similar to the psychometric functions they were 4 There appears to be an error in the author's statement of his second conclusion, page 43, where " standard deviations " should evidently be read for " precision measures ".…”