Theoretical and practical significance of formal reasoning

Abstract

Piaget's theory has profoundly influenced science education research. Following Piaget, researchers have focused on content‐free strategies, developmentally based mechanisms, and structural models of each stage of reasoning. In practice, factors besides those considered in Piaget's theory influence whether or not a theoretically available strategy is used. Piaget's focus has minimized the research attention placed on what could be called “practical” factors in reasoning. Practical factors are factors that influence application of a theoretically available strategy, for example, previous experience with the task content, familiarity with task instructions, or personality style of the student. Piagetian theory has minimized the importance of practical factors and discouraged investigation of (1) the role of factual knowledge in reasoning, (2) the diagnosis of specific, task‐based errors in reasoning, (3) the influence of individual aptitudes on reasoning (e.g., field dependence‐independence), and (4) the effect of educational interventions designed to change reasoning. This article calls for new emphasis on practical factors in reasoning and suggests why research on practical factors in reasoning will enhance our understanding of how scientific reasoning is acquired and of how science education programs can foster it.

Conceptualizing Magnification and Scale: The Roles of Spatial Visualization and Logical Thinking

“…Another cognitive aspect of scale ability might be formal reasoning as it has been shown in a number of studies to be associated with success in science and mathematics courses where scale is an important aspect of student understanding (Capie et al 1981;DeCarcer et al 1978;Inhelder and Piaget 1958;Lawson 1982Lawson , 1985Linn 1982). A study by Bitner (1991) found that formal reasoning was a predictor of grades for students in mathematics and science in grades nine through twelve.…”

Formal reasoning performance of higher secondary school students: Theoretical and educational implications

“…The existence of generalized cognitive structures, independent of environmental factors, ignores the interaction between the organism and its environment and emphasis on practical factors should consequently be increased (Linn, 1982). Some studies have also concluded that there is no compelling support for the existence of stages and the unity hypothesis (Flavell, 1982;Linn 1982), while other studies have concluded the opposite Lawson 1985).…”

“…Some studies have also concluded that there is no compelling support for the existence of stages and the unity hypothesis (Flavell, 1982;Linn 1982), while other studies have concluded the opposite Lawson 1985). These results lend credence to aspects of neo-Piagetian theories which account for individual difference variables and can successfully explicate differential performance on seemingly identical tasks (Pascual-Leone, 1988) or postulate the existence of specialized cognitive abilities dealing with different aspects of reality (Demetriou & Efklides, 1994;Fisher, 1980;Fisher & Pipp, 1984).…”

“…Other theoretical aspects of Piagetian theory, such as the crisp emergence of reasoning at each stage, the definition of the structure or the unity hypothesis, and the existence of content-free strategies characteristic of formal thought have not been unequivocally confirmed by research evidence (Lawson, 1985;Linn, 1982;Cheng & Holyoak, 1985;Valanides, 1990). The research findings have paved the ground for the development of new theories which claim that their theoretical frameworks overcome the limitations or the inconsistencies of the Piagetian theory (Demetriou & Efklides, 1994;Fisher, 1980;Fisher & Pipp, 1984;Pascual--Leone, 1988).…”

Differential cognitive responses to adjunct study questions in the learning of chemistry textual materials

“…It is possible that the inability of students in earlier studies to profit from textual materials using adjunct questions might, in part, be attributable to undeveloped intellectual structures. The influence and importance of the variable of intellectual development in studies of this type has been shown by such studies reporting strong relationships between inability to be formal operational and poor performances in science-related textual materials (Ehindero 1980, Linn 1982. The question can therefore be asked: What is the effect or influence of adjunct questions on performance in textual science materials by subjects differing in levels of intellectual functioning?…”