“…A good deal of empirical research has examined the effectiveness of imprisonment on serious crimes (DeFina & Arvanites, 2002;Levitt, 1996Levitt, , 1998Liedka, Piehl & Useeem, 2006;Marvell & Moody, 1994Shepherd, 2006;Spelman, 1994;Witt & Witte, 2000). Despite the abundance of this research, it has failed to yield conclusive findings.…”