The Walking Corsi Test (WalCT): A Normative Study of Topographical Working Memory in a Sample of 4- to 11-Year-Olds

Abstract

We report normative data on topographical working memory collected through the Walking Corsi Test (WalCT; Piccardi et al., 2008 ) for developing a standard administration procedure to be used in clinical and educational practice. A total of 268 typically developing Italian children aged 4-11 years performed both WalCT and Corsi Block-Tapping Test (CBT; Corsi, 1972 ) a well-known visuo-spatial memory test. WalCT has already been validated in adults, demonstrating sensitivity in detecting topographical memory deficits even in individuals who have no other memory impairments. Our results showed that age, but not sex, affected performances. Both girls and boys had a larger span on the CBT than the WalCT. The youngest group did not differ in performing WalCT and CBT, but from 5.6 years of age children performed better on CBT than WalCT, suggesting that memory in reaching space develops before topographical memory. Only after 5 years of age do children learn to process specifically topographical stimuli, suggesting that this happens when their environmental knowledge becomes operational and they increase environmental independence. We also discuss the importance to introduce WalCT in the clinical assessment.

Effect of Cognitive Style on Topographical Learning Across Life Span: Insights From Normal Development

“…First, our results suggest that field dependence–independence interacts with age in predicting TL. Even if previous studies documented age‐related advantage in topographical skills assessed using WalCT, see for example (Piccardi, Palermo, et al., ) or virtual environment (Nazareth et al., ), the present results suggest for the first time that field dependence–independence may act as a moderator of the age‐related increase of TL. Field dependence–independence has been conceived as the extent to which individuals tend to rely on an internal frame of reference (i.e., field‐independent individuals) or on an external frame of reference (i.e., field‐dependent individuals).…”

“…First, we set out to clarify which is(are) the critical developmental window(s) for the acquisition of TL and memory. To this purpose, we administered WalCT—a sensitive instrument for assessing individual differences (Piccardi, Palermo, et al., ; Piccardi et al., ; Verde et al., , ) as well as acquired and developmental deficits (Bianchini et al., , ; De Nigris et al., ; Piccardi, Iaria, Bianchini, Zompanti, & Guariglia, ; Piccardi et al., )—to children, early adolescents, and young adults. Our data suggest that TL is achieved during the early adolescence (11–14 years of age): teenagers performed better than children and similarly to young adults.…”

“…TL was assessed using the WalCT (Piccardi, Palermo, et al., ; Piccardi et al., , ). The WalCT is a larger version (3 × 2.5 m; scale 1:10) of the Corsi Block Tapping Test (Corsi, ), composed of nine black squares (30 × 30 cm) placed on the floor.…”

“…Also, even if within‐route pointing has been found to proceed more quickly than between‐route pointing, within‐route performance still improves in parallel with between‐route performance (Nazareth et al., ). Topographical span—namely, short‐term memory for positions within the “vista space”—has been found to gradually increases from 6 to 8.5 years of age, and to become stable by the age of 10 years (Piccardi, Leonzi, D'Amico, Marano, & Guariglia, ; Piccardi, Palermo, et al., ). However, topographical working memory skills in 10‐year‐old children, whose span is 3.2 on average ( SD = 1.1; Piccardi, Palermo, et al., ), is still far from the full acquisition showed by young adults, whose span is 5.3 on average (Piccardi et al., ).…”

“…Topographical span—namely, short‐term memory for positions within the “vista space”—has been found to gradually increases from 6 to 8.5 years of age, and to become stable by the age of 10 years (Piccardi, Leonzi, D'Amico, Marano, & Guariglia, ; Piccardi, Palermo, et al., ). However, topographical working memory skills in 10‐year‐old children, whose span is 3.2 on average ( SD = 1.1; Piccardi, Palermo, et al., ), is still far from the full acquisition showed by young adults, whose span is 5.3 on average (Piccardi et al., ). Memory for route has been found to be positively associated with age in a sample of children whose age ranged between 5 and 11 years (Purser et al., ).…”