The Vitruvian legacy: Mortars and binders before and after the Roman world

Abstract

A brief history of the nature, use and technology of binders in ancient constructions and buildings is outlined, including the apparent chronological discontinuities related to technological developments. The skilled and clever use of mineral resources is at the base of the technical achievements related to architectural activities, from simple adobe to high-performance modern concrete. It is argued that among pre-industrial binders the Roman pozzolanic mortars were highly optimized materials, skillfully prepared and very durable. Their innovative use in architecture is one of the keys of the successful expansion of the Roman Empire. The role of mineralogy and mineral reactions is emphasized in terms of: (1) the preparation and manufacturing of the binding materials; (2) the hardening process and the development of the physical properties of the binder; and (3) the archaeometric reconstruction of the ancient materials.

The significance of aragonite in the interpretation of the microscopic archaeological record

“…Controlled use of fire in prehistory eventually resulted in high‐temperature burning of carbonate rocks to obtain quicklime for lime plaster production (Artioli, Secco, & Addis, 2019; Kingery, Vandiver, & Prickett, 1988). Optical microscopy and FTIR spectroscopy can securely identify pyrogenic carbonates in plaster (e.g., Friesem, Abadi, Shaham, & Grosman, 2019; Karkanas, 2007).…”

The State-of-the-Art of Dating Techniques Applied to Ancient Mortars and Binders: A Review

“…Heating any polymorph of CaCO 3 (calcite, aragonite) above approximately 850ºC releases CO 2 and produces lime (CaO), which is normally converted to portlandite (Ca(OH) 2 ) by mixing it with a sufficient amount of water, a process called slaking. The slaked lime (or lime putty) is then used as the binder in masonry or as plaster (Barba and Villaseñor Alonso 2013;Artioli et al 2019). When in place, the portlandite is converted back to calcium carbonate by CO 2 absorption from the atmosphere: it is the carbonation process than makes a durable and resistant binder through CaCO 3 crystallization.…”

“…binding and waterproofing agents in constructions, plasters, etc.) are mostly rather complex materials (Table 1) and through the history of architecture they developed from simple clays to modern concrete systems (Artioli et al 2019). The necessity to find reliable ways of dating architectural binding systems derives from the fact that they are direct testaments to structural architecture developments and changes, they are the plastered support of our visual past (as frescoes and decorations) and they are the fundamental technical components of hydric reservoirs and waterways.…”

“…This paper attempts to review the current state-of-the-art of both applications. Table 1 Main classes of binding compounds produced by pyrotechnology (modified from Artioli 2010 andArtioli et al 2019).…”

Compositional Characterization and Chronology of Roman Mortars from the Archaeological Site of Arroyo De La Dehesa De Velasco (Burgo De Osma- Ciudad De Osma, Soria, Spain)

“…Mortars are an essential artificial material used since ancient times to support walls and substrates of buildings, and their durability is related to the nature of the components and manufacturing methods. Mortars consist of a mixture of aggregates and binder related both to the geographic location of the building and to the historical context in which the mortars were manufactured [1][2][3][4][5][6][7][8]. The study of mortars offers clues about raw materials and their provenance as well as on the manufacturing technology [9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16][17].…”