The unequal exchange of Dutch cheese and Kenyan roses: Introducing and testing an LCA-based methodology for estimating ecologically unequal exchange

Abstract

The theory of ecologically unequal exchange (EUE) posits that international trade is structurally organized in a manner that allows a net transfer of resources from peripheral developing to core industrialized countries. The consequence, it is argued, is under-development in the periphery and augmented productive capacity in the core. EUE thus challenges the neoliberal free-market argument that exchange at market prices is symmetric and fair. An LCA-based methodology for estimating EUE that holds constant the variable market price is introduced and tested on contemporary trade of Dutch cheese and Kenyan coffee and roses. Specifically, the exchange of embodied land, water, energy, global warming potential, and labor is assessed. The results confirm the theory's hypothesis. At a fixed market price, more embodied Kenyan resources are exchanged for less Dutch resources. However, Kenyan roses give different results from coffee. EUE between countries can only be conclusively determined by considering the total biophysical trade balance, but by calculating quantities of embodied resources per unit of exchange value, it is possible to detect unequal exchange even at the level of individual commodities. While integration of biophysical metrics alongside monetary valuation is recommended, ultimately, rethinking the structure, policies and politics of international trade is necessary.

Global asymmetries in the rise of solar power: An LCA-based account of ecologically unequal exchange between Germany and China 2002–2018

“…As we have already seen how the world economic relation between Germany and China was characterized by ecologically unequal exchange, the goal here is to calculate the presence of unequal exchange in the trade with focal commodities of the global solar PV market. Through an LCA-based method, it is possible to assess ecologically unequal exchange in trade with specific commodities (Oulu, 2015). This method gives a detailed understanding of the extent to which trade in specific commodities is involved in asymmetric flows of resources in the world economy and is therefore a suitable method for the aim of this study.…”

Life Cycle Analysis of Various Cheese Types

“…Parmesan, Asiago, Pecorino, Grana Padano (Fornasari, 2013;Vagnoni vd., 2017;Riva vd., 2018;Mondello vd., 2018;Bava vd., 2018;Lovarelli vd., 2019;Famiglietti vd., 2019) gibi coğrafi işaretli İtalyan peynirlerinin çevresel etkilerinin incelenmesinin yanı sıra, mozzarella ve ricotta (Palmieri vd., 2017;Riva vd., 2017;Forleo vd., 2018;Berlese vd., 2019;Berton vd., 2021) gibi dünyada oldukça geniş üretim hacmine sahip İtalyan peynirlerinin de çevresel performansı değerlendirilmiştir. Özellikle 2013 yılından sonra peynir üretiminin YDA çalışmaları dünya genelinde ivme kazanmış, süt endüstrisinin temel ürünlerinden olan peynirin çevresel performansının önemi birçok çalışmada vurgulanmıştır (Osojnik Crnivec ve Marinsek-Logar, 2009;Middelaar vd., 2011;Kim vd., 2013;Verge vd., 2013;Garcia vd., 2013a,b;Djekic vd., 2014;Nigri vd., 2014;Kristensen vd., 2015;Oulu, 2015;Santos Jr vd., 2017;Finnegan vd., 2017;Canellada vd., 2018;Gosalvitr vd., 2019;Alves vd., 2019;Tarighaleslami vd., 2020;Nunes, 2020;Celozzi vd., 2020).…”

Protein for Scraps: A Study of the European Union “Circular” Raw Materials Trade

“…Empirical studies aiming to test the existence of EUE have focused on measuring the different ecological impacts of international trade of final goods and primary raw materials (Piñero et al, 2020). These impacts have been extensively accounted for in terms of embodied resources (ecological footprints) (Oulu, 2015;Fitzgerald & Auerbach, 2016;Dorninger et al, 2021), physical material flows (Pérez-Rincón, 2006;Infante-Amate & Krausmann, 2019;Piñero et al, 2020;Infante-Amate et al, 2022), greenhouse gas emissions and other pollutants (Moran et al, 2013;Yu et al, 2014;Prell & Feng, 2016;Oppon et al, 2018). In contrast, empirical research on EUE in waste trade flows is less frequent (Frey, 2012;Tong et al, 2022), while, so far, only two studies have focused on "circular" or recyclable waste from this perspective (Llorente-González, 2019;Bai & Givens, 2021).…”