The Transracial Adoption Paradox

Abstract

The number of transracial adoptions in the United States, particularly international adoptions, is increasing annually. Counseling psychology as a profession, however, is a relatively silent voice in the research on and practice of transracial adoption. This article presents an overview of the history and research on transracial adoption to inform counseling psychologists of the set of racial and ethnic challenges and opportunities that transracial adoptive families face in everyday living. Particular attention is given to emergent theory and research on the cultural socialization process within these families.The older I get, the more I realize I can't avoid being Korean. Every time I look into the mirror, I am Korean. When I look at family pictures, I feel that I stand out. I guess it shouldn't bother me, but sometimes it does. Even though I may seem very American ...I want to be distinctly Korean. I know I'm not in terms of having all the Korean traditions, but I don't want people to see me and say, "Because she grew up in a Caucasian family, and because she is very Americanized, she's white." That's not what I want anymore.Janine Bishop (1996, p. 309) The opening passage by Janine Bishop (1996), a 20-year-old Korean adoptee college student, illustrates the transracial adoption paradox that confronts racial/ethnic minority children who are adopted by White parents. Namely, adoptees are racial/ethnic minorities in society, but they are perceived and treated by others, and sometimes themselves, as if they are members of the majority culture (i.e., racially White and ethnically European) due to adoption into a White family. This set of contradictory experiences that are nevertheless true has been of particular interest to adoptive families, adoption professionals, and researchers in the United States and Europe over the past 50 years (Fanshel, 1972;McRoy & Zurcher, 1983;Simon & Altstein, 2000;Tizard, 1991).The purpose of this article is to address some of the psychological and cultural questions raised by the transracial adoption paradox: What are the psychological consequences of growing up in a transracial adoptive family? How do the unique experiences of transracial adoptees shape racial/ethnic identity development? Do parents' and children's efforts to overcome racial and ethnic differences relate to psychological adjustment? A brief review of the history and controversies surrounding transracial adoption in the United States is presented and followed by a selective review of the empirical literature on transracial adoption. Drawing on the reviewed research, a cultural socialization framework is proposed to understand the psychological and cultural dynamics pertinent to transracial adoptive families. The article concludes with ways in which counseling psychology can contribute to the improvement of transracial adoption research and practice. MODERN HISTORY OF TRANSRACIAL ADOPTIONTransracial adoption is defined as "the joining of racially different parents and children together in adoptive familie...

Family Influences on Ethnic Identity Development among Transracial Adoptees

“…Identity components of each of these constructs (e.g., racial identity vs. ethnic identity) have also lacked consistency in the literature (Baden & Steward, 2007). Though these terms have often been used interchangeably in research, it is likely that some TRAs identify more with one term or facet than another (Lee, 2003). This confusion has also made it more difficult to accurately measure and compare this group in research (Lee, 2003).…”

“…Though these terms have often been used interchangeably in research, it is likely that some TRAs identify more with one term or facet than another (Lee, 2003). This confusion has also made it more difficult to accurately measure and compare this group in research (Lee, 2003).…”

“…Current trends and practices of adoption began after World War II, in response to political and cultural shifts that led to a decrease of White, healthy babies relinquished for adoption, and an increase of adoption alternatives, including international and special needs adoption (Zamostny et al, 2003). During this era, transracial adoptions became more commonplace through the Indian Adoption Project (removing Native American children from reservations and adopting many of them into White families), and through the adoption of Korean War orphans (Baden & Steward, 2007;Lee, 2003). Motives for choosing to take part in transracial adoption have varied over time, with many families using it as an alternative when unable to have their own children.…”

“…In view of past history and the way society has at times addressed diverse cultures and ethnicities, some fear that adoptive parents, intentionally or unintentionally, have motives to assimilate TRAs into their own dominant culture, thus devaluing and/or dissolving their culture/ethnicity of origin (Lee, 2003;Simon & Altstein, 2000). Others are concerned about how adequately White adoptive parents can equip and prepare nonWhite TRAs for discrimination they may face, and, in the least, whether these parents are able to accept and understand the unique experiences TRAs may encounter as racial and/or ethnic minorities (Kim, Reichwald, & Lee, 2013;Mohanty, 2013).…”

“…Any adopted person must integrate multiple identities into a coherent sense of self, negotiating influences and perceptions from multiple sources that might include their birth family, adoptive family, and society as a whole. When looking at individuals who are adopted transracially, this also includes ethnic and racial discrepancies (Lee, 2003;Mohanty, 2013). The immediate family itself poses unique challenges for TRAs, particularly in regard to identity development (Grotevant, Dunbar, Kohler, & Esau, 2000;Mohanty, 2013;Scherman, 2010).…”