The Toxicity of Mercury and Its Chemical Compounds: Molecular Mechanisms and Environmental and Human Health Implications: A Comprehensive Review

Abstract

Mercury is a type of hazardous and toxic pollutant that can result in detrimental effects on the environment and human health. This review is aimed at discussing the state-of-the-art progress on the recent developments on the toxicity of mercury and its chemical compounds. More than 210 recent works of literature are covered in this review. It first delineates the types (covering elemental mercury, inorganic mercury compounds, organic mercury compounds), structures, and sources of mercury. It then discusses the pharmacokinetic profile of mercury, molecular mechanisms of mercury toxicity, and clinical manifestation of acute and chronic mercury toxicity to public health. It also elucidates the mercury toxicity to the environment and human health in detail, covering ecotoxicity, neurotoxicity diseases, neurological diseases, genotoxicity and gene regulation, immunogenicity, pregnancy and reproductive system damage, cancer promotion, cardiotoxicity, pulmonary diseases, and renal disease. In order to mitigate the adverse effects of mercury, strategies to overcome mercury toxicity are recommended. Finally, some future perspectives are provided in order to advance this field of research in the future.

Gaseous Mercury Limit Values: Definitions, Derivation, and the Issues Related to Their Application

“…Humans are exposed to elemental Hg mainly by inhalation through the lungs, where Hg 0 is rapidly and almost completely adsorbed (ca. 80%) and readily distributed throughout the whole body [24]. The high diffusion of Hg 0 is due to the uncharged monoatomic form that ensures lipid solubilization: Hg 0 can rapidly cross the blood-brain or blood-placenta barrier, and it accumulates in the brain or in the fetus once oxidized [25].…”

“…Kidney damage due to the toxic effect of Hg 0 is mainly manifested as proteinuria and various nephrotic syndromes [25]. A wide range of toxic effects have also been observed in cardiovascular (palpitations, increase in the blood pressure) and gastrointestinal (stomatitis, pain, nausea) systems [24]. An occupational exposure to Hg 0 vapor has been demonstrated to be an infertility factor for women [29].…”