THE TOKEN ECONOMY: AN EVALUATIVE REVIEW<sup>1</sup>

Kazdin, Alan E.; Bootzin, Richard R.

doi:10.1901/jaba.1972.5-343

Cited by 442 publications

(203 citation statements)

References 84 publications

Supporting

Mentioning

195

Contrasting

Unclassified

Order By: Relevance

“…The past proliferation and popularity of research on behaviour modification techniques, such as conditioning, explains why controlling instructional strategies permeate in the teaching community (Kazdin & Bootzin, 1972;Kazdin & Wilson, 1978). In addition, both parents (Boggiano et al, 1987) and students subscribe to the idea that extrinsic incentives are not only desirable, but also optimal motivational tools (i.e., " the larger the carrot or the stick, the more highly motivated the child"; Boggiano et al, 1987).…”

Section: Limitations and Future Directionsmentioning

confidence: 99%

The effects of an experimental programme to support students’ autonomy on the overt behaviours of physical education teachers

2008

View full text Add to dashboard Cite

Although the benefits of autonomy supportive behaviours are now well established in the literature, very few studies have attempted to train teachers to offer a greater autonomy support to their students. In fact, none of these studies has been carried out in physical education (PE). The purpose of this study is to test the effects of an autonomy-supportive training on overt behaviours of teaching among PE teachers. The experimental group included two PE teachers who were first educated on the benefits of an autonomy supportive style and then followed an individualised guidance programme during the 8 lessons of a teaching cycle.Their behaviours were observed and rated along 3 categories (i.e., autonomy supportive, neutral and controlling) and were subsequently compared to those of three teachers who formed the control condition. The results showed that teachers in the experimental group used more autonomy supportive and neutral behaviours than those in the control group, but no difference emerged in relation to controlling behaviours. We discuss the implications for schools of our findings.

show abstract

Section: Limitations and Future Directionsmentioning

confidence: 99%

The effects of an experimental programme to support students’ autonomy on the overt behaviours of physical education teachers

2008

View full text Add to dashboard Cite

show abstract

“…High ratings of satisfaction were obtained for the program, from all groups of participants. The feasibility of the program for application in the school system is discussed.DESCRIPTORS: reading, tutoring, comprehension, peers, elementary school students Several investigators have demonstrated that contingency management procedures can effectively modify academic performance (Coleman, 1970;Harris, Finfrock, Giles, Hart, & Tsose, 1975;Kazdin & Bootzin, 1972;O'Leary & Drabman, 1971;. These procedures are often costly in terms of teacher time.…”

mentioning

confidence: 99%

Peer Tutoring With or Without Home‐based Reinforcement, for Reading Remediation

Trovato

Bucher

1980

J of App Behav Analysis

View full text Add to dashboard Cite

An operant-based corrective reading program was established to study effectiveness of peer tutoring in the school, for reading deficient children. Sixty-nine second to fourth grade students were matched on measures of initial reading ability and level of reading retardation, and randomly assigned to three groups: Peer Tutoring Only, Peer Tutoring with Home Based Reinforcement, and Control. SRA materials were used in training for the experimental groups, supplemented with additional reading materials. The program continued for 15 weeks, in seven public schools. Changes in oral reading accuracy and comprehension were assessed. Both reading and comprehension were significantly increased by peer tutoring, relative to the control group. The addition of home-based reinforcement doubled this increase. The measured gain in oral reading, based upon standardized testing, was 0.19 years for the controls and 1.27 years for peer tutoring with home-based reinforcement. Internal measures of gain showed similar results, and comprehension gains were also comparable. A high rate of compliance with the tutoring program was maintained by the tutors. High ratings of satisfaction were obtained for the program, from all groups of participants. The feasibility of the program for application in the school system is discussed.DESCRIPTORS: reading, tutoring, comprehension, peers, elementary school students Several investigators have demonstrated that contingency management procedures can effectively modify academic performance (Coleman, 1970;Harris, Finfrock, Giles, Hart, & Tsose, 1975;Kazdin & Bootzin, 1972;O'Leary & Drabman, 1971;. These procedures are often costly in terms of teacher time. Measurement and observation of performance, and the management of teacher attention or other contingencies may be impractical in many classroom settings.The behavior of children in school can also be influenced by reinforcement administered at Robertson, DeReus, and Drabman (1976).The separate studies of home-based reinforcement and peer tutoring indicate that potential benefits may accrue from the union of these two methods. The two procedures were studied in combination by Wilson (Note 2), who found that when peer tutoring was combined with a home-based reinforcement procedure, gains in reading accuracy were greater than the gains achieved by peer tutoring alone. In addition, gains achieved in the combined condition were consistent across all subjects whereas gains for peer tutoring alone were found for some subjects but not for others. However, Wilson's study reports data for only five subjects, and no clear effects of contingencies were shown for reading comprehension.In research on reading the importance of reading comprehension is often overlooked. Staats and Butterfield (1965) The present study examined reading accuracy and reading comprehension for groups of children given peer tutoring, with or without an added home-based reinforcement system. Gains were assessed using measures both internal and external to the training program. In additio...

show abstract

“…The stimuli will serve as most effective conditioned reinforcers if they are regularly presented contingent upon the target response and if they reliably predict reinforcement. Considerable research has identified the effectiveness of tokens, points, gold stars, and the like in achieving this purpose (Kazdin, 1982;Kazdin & Bootzin, 1972), yet the identification of less contrived, more naturally occurring conditioned reinforcers will be useful for ensuring generalization to other settings. Pictures of a desired object, edible item, or activity may serve a similarly useful purpose when presented during a delay, particularly if the pictures are being used concomitantly in a communication teaching program (e.g., Bondy & Frost, 1993).…”

Section: Basic Research Related To Delayed Reinforcementmentioning

confidence: 99%

Designing Interventions That Include Delayed Reinforcement: Implications of Recent Laboratory Research

Stromer

McComas

Rehfeldt

2000

J of App Behav Analysis

View full text Add to dashboard Cite

The search for robust and durable interventions in everyday situations typically involves the use of delayed reinforcers, sometimes delivered well after a target behavior occurs. Integrating the findings from laboratory research on delayed reinforcement can contribute to the design and analysis of those applied interventions. As illustrations, we examine articles from the Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior that analyzed delayed reinforcement with respect to response allocation (A. M. Williams & Lattal, 1999), stimulus chaining (B. A. Williams, 1999), and self‐control (Jackson & Hackenberg, 1996). These studies help to clarify the conditions under which delayed reinforcement (a) exercises control of behavior, (b) entails conditioned reinforcement, and (c) displaces the effects of immediate reinforcement. The research has applied implications, including the development of positive social behavior and teaching people to make adaptive choices.

show abstract

THE TOKEN ECONOMY: AN EVALUATIVE REVIEW¹

Cited by 442 publications

References 84 publications

The effects of an experimental programme to support students’ autonomy on the overt behaviours of physical education teachers

The effects of an experimental programme to support students’ autonomy on the overt behaviours of physical education teachers

Peer Tutoring With or Without Home‐based Reinforcement, for Reading Remediation

Designing Interventions That Include Delayed Reinforcement: Implications of Recent Laboratory Research

Contact Info

Product

Resources

About

THE TOKEN ECONOMY: AN EVALUATIVE REVIEW1

Cited by 442 publications

References 84 publications

The effects of an experimental programme to support students’ autonomy on the overt behaviours of physical education teachers

The effects of an experimental programme to support students’ autonomy on the overt behaviours of physical education teachers

Peer Tutoring With or Without Home‐based Reinforcement, for Reading Remediation

Designing Interventions That Include Delayed Reinforcement: Implications of Recent Laboratory Research

Contact Info

Product

Resources

About

THE TOKEN ECONOMY: AN EVALUATIVE REVIEW¹