The Thyroid Hormone Axis and Female Reproduction

Abstract

Thyroid function affects multiple sites of the female hypothalamic-pituitary gonadal (HPG) axis. Disruption of thyroid function has been linked to reproductive dysfunction in women and is associated with menstrual irregularity, infertility, poor pregnancy outcomes, and gynecological conditions such as premature ovarian insufficiency and polycystic ovarian syndrome. Thus, the complex molecular interplay between hormones involved in thyroid and reproductive functions is further compounded by the association of certain common autoimmune states with disorders of the thyroid and the HPG axes. Furthermore, in prepartum and intrapartum states, even relatively minor disruptions have been shown to adversely impact maternal and fetal outcomes, with some differences of opinion in the management of these conditions. In this review, we provide readers with a foundational understanding of the physiology and pathophysiology of thyroid hormone interactions with the female HPG axis. We also share clinical insights into the management of thyroid dysfunction in reproductive-aged women.

Risk assessment of transgender people: implementation of a demasculinizing–feminizing rodent model including the evaluation of thyroid homeostasis

“…In addition, considering the complexity of endocrine system that controls body processes and functions and the well-known link between thyroid and gonads through the hypothalamic-pituitary gonadal axis [ 33 ], mainly in females but evident also in males [ 34 , 35 ], it appeared of interest to investigate the potential impact of HT on thyroid homeostasis. At present, this is the first in vivo study that explores the potential impact of HT on thyroid.…”

Omega 3 fatty acids preserve testicular function by ameliorating BPF-induced dysthyroidism: role of p53/Bcl-2 signaling and proton pump activities

“…This confirms previous findings (Mazzilli et al, 2023;El-Kashlan et al, 2015;La Vignera et al, 2017) demonstrating testicular dysfunction and male infertility in hypothyroidism. Hyperprolactinemia might be the link between the observed primary hypothyroidism and hypogonadotropic hypogonadism (Brown et al, 2023) since BPF has been shown to increase circulatory prolactin . Hypothyroidism is associated with an increase in circulatory TRH, which in turn increases circulatory prolactin (Tashjian Jr et al, 1971).…”

The causal association between thyroid disease and gout: A Mendelian randomization study

“…Abnormal thyroid function and thyroid diseases will adversely affect female reproductive function and lead to abnormal levels of female sex hormones, which will lead to irregular menstruation, infertility, poor pregnancy outcome and premature ovarian failure. [ 51 ] Interestingly, studies have found that there are sex differences in the incidence of gout, and female estrogen and progesterone can reduce the risk of gout. [ 52 ] It also provides some ideas for us to study the relationship between thyroid disease and gout.…”