The Theory of Cognitive Dissonance: State of the Science and Directions for Future Research

Abstract

The theory of cognitive dissonance is one of the most influential theories in social psychology. Since its initial publication 50 years ago, it has inspired more than 1,000 empirical papers. However, dissonance theory has not only had a profound impact on research in social psychology, it has also been used for designing interventions to address a variety of societal problems. In this short overview of the empirical literature on dissonance theory, we first introduce the definition of dissonance theory in its classic formulation by Festinger (1957). Second, we review the most important paradigms used in empirical dissonance research and summarize the most prominent empirical results. Third, we present the main features of the self-based revision of dissonance theory and introduce our own self-based modification of dissonance theory including related data on ego-depletion and selective exposure. Finally, we present directions for future dissonance research, in particular in the areas of self-regulation and information-processing, and discuss the application of dissonance theory to societal problems. Classic Formulation of Dissonance TheoryCognitive dissonance is defined as the subjective perception of incompatibility between two self-relevant cognitions. A cognition can be any element of knowledge, belief, attitude, value, emotion, interest, plan, or behavior. In other words, cognitions are dissonant when one specific cognition implies the opposite of another cognition. The resulting cognitive discrepancy is associated with a psychological state of unpleasantness (cognitive dissonance) that motivates the individual to reduce this state of discomfort by reducing the discrepancy between the dissonant cognitions (Festinger, 1957;Harmon-Jones, 2000). The magnitude of the cognitive dissonance is determined by the importance of the cognitions involved and their relation to a personal standard. Dissonance can be reduced in five ways or some combination thereof: (a) adding consonant cognitions, (b) subtracting dissonant cognitions (by ignoring, suppressing, or forgetting them), (c) replacing existing cognitions with others, that is, subtracting dissonant cognitions while adding consonant ones, (d) increasing the importance of consonant cognitions, and

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A model of opinion and propagation structure polarization in social media

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