The tension and resistance to stretching of human skin and other membranes, with results from a series of normal and oedematous cases

Abstract

Dick (1947) described the structure and arrangement of elastic tissue in normal and in oedematous skin. In this paper the resistance of the skin to stretching is investigated and the part played by elastic tissue in the tension of the skin is discussed. Hass (1939) reviewed the properties ofelastic tissue in general and emphasized, as had the German school at an earlier date (Sternberg, 1925), that changes in staining properties of elastic fibres did not necessarily signify changes in function or structure of the fibres. In later studies on the aorta, Hass (1942, 1943) freed the elastic fibres by a severe chemical process and tested their extensibility, retractility and maximum tensile strength. Krafka (1937Krafka ( , 1939Krafka ( , 1942) also studied elastic tissue, muscle and collagen fibres in the aorta, and concluded that collagen fibres act as a check against over-distension of the elastic and muscle fibres at high pressures. He thought that there was no change in the elasticity of elastic tissue with advancing agebut he was using results from ligamenta nuchae of oxen. Saxton (1942) showed that in some animals, e.g. the rabbit, vascular changes are not found in advancing age as in man.The limitations to the precise study of the elasticity of the skin and of the fluid content of the subcutaneous tissues were recognized by Crosti (1933) when he reviewed the information given by the 'elastometer'. This instrument, introduced by Schade (1912) and elaborated by Schwartz (1916), by Kunde (1926) and others, records the effect of removing a weight which has been pressing on the skin for a stated period.Sodeman & Burch (1938) measured with a calibrated spring caliper the extent of stretch of skin in different areas of the body, but they could not calculate the stretch per unit area or the resistance of the skin to stretching.

The Ageing of Skin

“…Rothman (1953) observed that old people's skin had a poor elasdc meshwork producing low initial tension. Schmitt (1891) referred to the breakdown of elastic tissue with age and these findings were confirmed by Ejiri (1937) and Dick (1947). Wenzel (1949) observed that the contraction of skin was greater in the direction of Ranger's lines than across it.…”

“…Schade, 1912;Dick, 1949;Carter and Rangy, 1954) have failed to measure any specific property of the material or to relate the find ings to the structure of the tissue. In recent years more interest has been aroused in this field.…”

“…Some had their forearms permanendy covered with clothing, while others were doing manual work with their arms exposed to sunlight and considerable mechanical action. There is evidence that sunlight not only contributes to the breakdown of elastin but may also affect collagen (White, 1910;Ejiri, 1936;Dick, 1947;Annotation, 1962).…”

Strain of Rat Skin at Constant Load (Creep Experiments) Influence of Age and Desmotropic Agents

“…Mechanical properties of skin as influenced by age and by various pharma cological factors have been studied by many authors (Brozek and Kinzey, 1960;Dick, 1951;Fry et al, 1964;Grahame and Holt, 1969;Harkness, 1961;Harkness and Harkness, 1966;Holzmann et al, 1971;Jansen and Rottier, 1958;Kenedi et al, 1964Kenedi et al, , 1966Lanir and Fung, 1974;Mendoza andMilch, 1964/1965;Millington et al, 1971;Wright, 1964, 1966;Rollhäuser, 1950;Ruppelt, 1937;Schade, 1912;Schmidt-La Baume, 1927a, b, 1928, Stütt gen. 1965Vogel, 1969Vogel, , 1971Vogel, , 1972aVogel, , b, c, 1973Vogel, , 1974aVogel etaL, 1970;Weinig and Zink, 1967;Wenzel, 1950).…”

Effect of Age on the Retraction of Skin

“…One of the first in vitro studies of the tension and resistance of human skin was carried out by Dick (1951). He stretched pieces of skin over water in a round chamber and measured the excursion of the centre of the circle of skin in response to increases in the water pressure beneath the skin.…”