The state of the world’s urban ecosystems: What can we learn from trees, fungi, and bees?

Abstract

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Soil quality and fertility in sustainable agriculture, with a contribution to the biological classification of agricultural soils

“…However, the functionality and metabolism of soil microorganisms are related to soil quality and fertility, as they influence and, at the same time, are influenced by the soil C and N contents, bacteria being an essential part of C and N cycling processes (de Vries and Shade, 2013;Mooshammer et al, 2014;de Vries & Wallenstein, 2017;Li et al, 2018). Microbial interactions play a critical role not only in regulating ecological functions and processes but ultimately in determining the health of plants, animals and humans as components of terrestrial ecosystems (Fierer, 2017;Sofo et al, 2020b;Stevenson et al, 2020). Having co-evolved with a plethora of microorganisms, plants benefit from microbial symbiosis, while simultaneously facing challenges from pathogens.…”

“…Sustainable agriculture can give benefits to plant growth, such as increased biomass and productivity, enhanced photosynthesis and carbohydrate allocation, better regulation of root respiration and higher defenses against pests and diseases, with more soil microorganisms and fauna, and thus more efficient trophic networks. Mycorrhizal fungi, being involved in many ecosystem services (Stevenson et al, 2020), are important in many types of soil. Besides well-known negative affects of conventional practices (Verbruggen et al, 2010), in over-exploited, conventionally managed agricultural landscapes, habitat loss and fragmentation prevent dispersal and are major threats to mycorrhizas (Longo et al, 2016).…”

“…Besides well-known negative affects of conventional practices (Verbruggen et al, 2010), in over-exploited, conventionally managed agricultural landscapes, habitat loss and fragmentation prevent dispersal and are major threats to mycorrhizas (Longo et al, 2016). Human societies benefit from a multitude of ecosystem services from both natural and managed ecosystems, to which soil organisms make a crucial and distinctive (Stevenson et al, 2020). Unfortunately, it is well recognized that humans are changing the global environment at an unprecedented rate.…”

Catalogue of pests and pathogens of trees on the island of Ireland

“…The ash sawfly (Tomostethus nigritus [Fabricius]), which was first detected in Northern Ireland in 2016 (Jess et al 2017), led to defoliation of hundreds of trees in 2017 in urban areas in south Belfast (Ian Rea unpublished data). Recent work has highlighted the threat to these and other urban trees from disease (biotic and abiotic), with a need to diversify urban tree species (Stevenson et al 2020)…”

Large ecological benefits of small urban greening actions

“…Urbanisation is an acute driver of these changes, with deep eco-evolutionary effects on species occurring in or around cities (Alberti et al 2017; Johnson & Munshi-South 2017; Palma et al 2017; Piano et al 2017; Merckx et al 2018; Fenoglio et al 2020; Mc Donald et al 2020; Lambert et al 2021). At local scales, however, urban greenspaces – whether large or small, permanent or temporary – are known to support functionally diverse ecological communities (Threlfall et al 2017; Baldock et al 2019; Mata et al 2019; Spotwood et al 2021), which in turn provide an array of socio-ecological benefits to urban residents (Lai et al 2019; Mata et al 2020; Stevenson et al 2020). Understanding, quantifying, and managing these benefits has become a sharp focus of practitioners, professionals, and policymakers (Nilon et al 2017; United Nations 2017; Mata et al 2020).…”