The state of earthen housing worldwide: how development affects attitudes and adoption

Abstract

Housing is a cross-cutting issue that is crucial to achieving several of the Sustainable Development Goals. Earthen housing is found across the globe, particularly in developing countries, but there is a lack of up-to-date information about its distribution and trends. This knowledge gap is a barrier to developing more effective research and policy for earthen housing. In this study, national demographic datasets were used to investigate the distribution, trends and attitudes towards earthen housing worldwide. Data was collected and analysed for the most populous 26 countries, which make up >75% of the global population. Globally, earthen housing is in decline relative to non-earthen housing, driven by demographic changes and negative perceptions of earthen materials in developing countries. The proportion of households living in earthen dwellings worldwide is estimated to be 8-10%, and the average across developing countries to be 20-25%. There is a negative correlation between countries' level of development and prevalence of earthen housing. Whilst data is more sparse for highly developed countries, the development of standards and commercial interest suggests more favourable attitudes to earthen housing. A focus is encouraged on high-quality earthen dwellings which can help meet housing needs in both developing and developed countries.

Cost-effectiveness and affordability evaluation of a residential prototype built with compressed earth bricks, hybrid roofs and palm midribs

“…Earthen houses are those that use unfired earth as a primary component. (Marsh and Kulshreshtha, 2021). They have lower environmental impact, low embodied energy, and improve air quality and thermal comfort (Uzoegbo, 2016;Yang and Wang, 2019;Kasinikota and Tripura, 2021).…”

“…Despite the advantages of earthen masonry constructions, they were abandoned due to their link with poverty, reduced durability, reduced shear and tensile strengths, and consequent shift to reinforced concrete buildings with fired and cement bricks. In recent decades however, earth techniques have regained popularity due to concerns about the environment and affordability (Burroughs, 2010;Fernandes et al, 2019;Di Gregorio et al, 2020;Kulshreshtha et al, 2020;Marsh and Kulshreshtha, 2021).…”

“…The latter has regained attention as a contemporary construction material that may be less expensive while meeting the same modern requirements. In developing countries, on the other hand, traditional and indigenous materials were replaced by concrete, fired bricks, cement, and steel to increase house durability and quality of life (UN-Habitat, 2009;2012;Marsh and Kulshreshtha, 2021). According to Marsh and Kulshreshtha (2021)'s survey on earth constructions worldwide, this shift is growing in urban and rural areas and formerly accepted estimates that one-third of the global population resides in earth homes, exceeding 50% in developing countries, are no longer accurate.…”

Building Material and the Climate: Constructing a New Future

“…At the end of the 20th century, earth-based structures housed around a third of the global population; since then, this share has fallen to only 8-10 per cent, with 20-25 per cent of the use occurring in developing countries (Houben and Guillaud 1994;Marsh and Kulshreshtha 2022). As incomes have risen and access to concrete masonry has increased, the use of earth as a building material has declined.…”

“…As incomes have risen and access to concrete masonry has increased, the use of earth as a building material has declined. Countries where more than 10 per cent of the population still lives in earth-based buildings include Bangladesh, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Ethiopia, India, Mexico, Nigeria, United Republic of Tanzania and Viet Nam (Marsh and Kulshreshtha 2022).…”