The Sociology of Discrimination: Racial Discrimination in Employment, Housing, Credit, and Consumer Markets

Abstract

Persistent racial inequality in employment, housing, and a wide range of other social domains has renewed interest in the possible role of discrimination. And yet, unlike in the pre-civil rights era, when racial prejudice and discrimination were overt and widespread, today discrimination is less readily identifiable, posing problems for social scientific conceptualization and measurement. This article reviews the relevant literature on discrimination, with an emphasis on racial discrimination in employment, housing, credit markets, and consumer interactions. We begin by defining discrimination and discussing relevant methods of measurement. We then provide an overview of major findings from studies of discrimination in each of the four domains; and, finally, we turn to a discussion of the individual, organizational, and structural mechanisms that may underlie contemporary forms of discrimination. This discussion seeks to orient readers to some of the key debates in the study of discrimination and to provide a roadmap for those interested in building upon this long and important line of research. Keywordsrace; inequality; measurement; mechanisms; African Americans; racial minorities Persistent racial inequality in employment, housing, and other social domains has renewed interest in the possible role of discrimination. Contemporary forms of discrimination, however, are often subtle and covert, posing problems for social scientific conceptualization and measurement. This article reviews the relevant literature on racial discrimination, providing a roadmap for scholars who wish to build on this rich and important tradition. The charge for this article was a focus on racial discrimination in employment, housing, credit markets, and consumer interactions, but many of the arguments reviewed here may also extend to other domains (e.g., education, health care, the criminal justice system) and to other types of discrimination (e.g., gender, age, sexual orientation). We begin this discussion by defining discrimination and discussing methods for measuring discrimination. We then provide an overview of major findings from studies of discrimination in employment, housing, and credit and consumer markets. Finally, we turn to a discussion of the individual, organizational, and structural mechanisms that may underlie contemporary forms of discrimination.

Discrimination of tenants with a visual impairment on the housing market: Empirical evidence from correspondence tests

“…Further research would do well to examine discrimination against candidates with a visual impairment who intend to buy as well, and could be extended to examining discrimination among credit institutions. 44 In sum, this study has shown that discrimination against individuals with a visual impairment in the rental housing market is substantial, among both private landlords and real estate agents. Given that discrimination has a negative effect on both physical and mental health 26,27,28,29 , this finding should urge health researchers to devote more attention to social causes of health problems among individuals with an impairment.…”

Ethnic Penalties in Western Labour Markets: <i>Contributions, Explanations, Critiques</i>

“…Ethnic discrimination is usually defined as the unequal treatment of individuals or groups by virtue of their ethnic background (Midtbøen & Rogstad 2012a;Pager & Shepherd 2008). As such, for an act to be defined as discriminatory, a causal link between the ethnic background of the individual or group and the actual unequal treatment must be established.…”

“…Studies of labour market discrimination employ a broad set of approaches, including studies of legal cases, qualitative research into the recruitment practices of employers and the work of employment agencies, and surveys on the subjective experiences of ethnic minorities and victims of discrimination (see reviews in Pager & Shepherd 2008;Midtbøen 2015b). However, to measure the incidence of discrimination directly, field experiments or audit studies are usually considered the 'gold standard' (OECD 2013b: 202).…”

A lay-statistician explanation of minority discrimination

“…Although, women and minorities have made important strides in the labor market over the past several decades, they still face discrimination (Tomaskovic-Devey et al 2006;Pager and Shepherd, 2008;Ridgeway 2011). For instance, they are less likely to be hired for or promoted to prestigious positions, compared to their male and white counterparts (Catalyst 1996;Reskin 2001;National Research Council 2004;Correll & Benard 2006).…”

“…Similarly, research shows high levels of sex-and race-segregation, with females and minorities disproportionately represented in sectors or occupations with lower pay (Reskin 1993;Tomaskovic-Devey et al 2006). From dominant theoretical perspectives, this persistent discrimination is somewhat surprising, given growing evidence that gender-and racial attitudes have become more egalitarian (e.g., Dovidio & Gaertner 2004;Bobo 2001;Foschi & LaPointe 2002;Pager and Shepherd, 2008), as well as the introduction of federal legislation barring discrimination based on social category membership (Burstein and Edwards 1994;Quillian 2006). But, as Reskin (2002) notes, legislation and policies aimed at barring discrimination tend to assume that discrimination is based on decision-makers' intentional or rational choices.…”