The School-to-Prison Pipeline: Disproportionate Impact on Vulnerable Children and Adolescents

Abstract

This conceptual article synthesizes the empirical research on punitive environmental norms of schools and the disproportionate effects on certain child and adolescent groups, particularly within urban schools. This involvement has come to be known as the school-to-prison pipeline. The young people affected by harsh school discipline protocols and involved formally with the juvenile courts share a number of common vulnerabilities. A review of these common risk factors that children and adolescents experience is presented first. This is followed by identification of which child and adolescent groups are disproportionately involved in the pipeline: the impoverished, those of color, maltreatment victims, students with special education disabilities, and lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender.

Levels of problem behaviours and risk and protective factors In suspended and non-suspended students

“…The finding that suspension is associated with student-reported low commitment to school and lower levels of supportive teacher relationships is consistent with research demonstrating that good school connectedness is associated with both positive school outcomes and good mental health (Salle Tamika, George Heather, Betsy, Polk, & Evanovich, 2018;Walker & Graham, 2019). Furthermore, being male, academic failure and exclusionary practices such as suspension have been identified as crucial components in the 'school to prison pipeline', with the majority of adolescents involved in the court system being exposed to these school-level risk factors Mallett, 2016). It should be acknowledged that a student who completes set classwork, responds to teacher instruction, and conforms to the implicit and explicit social norms of the school environment is less likely to be suspended (Arcia, 2006).…”

“…In addition, school suspension has been shown to increase the likelihood of future antisocial behaviour, as well as tobacco use and violence (Hemphill, Heerde, Herrenkohl, Toumbourou, & Catalano, 2011;Hemphill et al, 2006). Of particular concern is the potential for adverse school events such as suspension to contribute to the 'school to prison pipeline' (Mallett, 2016) Students with emotional disorders are over-represented among suspended students (Goran & Gage, 2011;Sullivan, Van Norman, & Klingbeil, 2014). Further to these student factors, multilevel analysis has demonstrated that school-level factors predict the likelihood of a student being suspended Theriot, Craun, & Dupper, 2010).…”

A Systematic Review of the Literature on Aspects Affecting Positive Classroom Climate in Multicultural Early Childhood Education

“…Particularly, according to Harman and Manfra (2016), children's behavioural problems decrease when they receive warm, direct instruction related to prosocial skills. This is especially important for children with minority backgrounds since a disciplinary environment in the classroom and the school have been reported to have negative effects for more vulnerable students (Mallett 2017). Similarly, the concept of "authentic instruction" emphasizes the importance of the social and emotional aspects of learning that teachers should guarantee (Reyes et al 2012), such as by offering adjusted feedback and ensuring conceptual development and productivity (Howes et al 2013).…”

Can schools teach citizenship?

“…Francis & Mills, 2012;Harber, 2009;Hodgson, 2018) each year documents innumerable instances of what Banks (2015) has called 'failed citizenship', where mostly poor, mostly minority youth continue to disengage from whatever schools are trying to teach them about how to be a 'proper' citizen. While it remains the fashion in some quarters to refer to these children as 'at risk', 'dropouts', or 'school leavers', educational researchers have been demonstrating for more than half a century that it is more accurate to say that these students are pushed out of school, and not only into a world where the 'good citizenship' of stigmatized groups is routinely questioned, but more generally into a world of structural exclusion and diminished opportunities that awaits those without academic credentials and skills (Kim, Losen, & Hewitt, 2010;Mallett, 2017;Noguera, 2009;Payne, 2008). The upshot is this: the CSR of democracy liberal theorists like Gutmann envisioned that public schools would provide everyone was long ago revealed as the social reproduction of inequality 6 (Bourdieu & Passeron, 1990;Bowles & Gintis, 1976;Coleman, 1966;Jencks, 1972).…”