“…For instance, it has been reported in various studies that students' characteristics such as age, innate ability, health, motivation, and social capital affect learning outcomes (Heydera et al, 2020;Ito & McPherson, 2018;Thoren et al, 2016). Similarly, researchers have also associated students' learning outcomes in secondary schools with school-related factors such as administrative expenses (Ekeatte et al, 2019;Nicoletti & Rabe, 2018;Odigwe & Owan, 2022), curriculum offering (Owan, Emanghe, et al, 2022;Yu & Mocan, 2019), school facilities (Nabi et al, 2019;Onyebuenyi et al, 2022), student-teacher ratio (Wang & Calvano, 2022), instructional time utilisation (Cattaneo et al, 2017;Rivkin & Schiman, 2015), and learning environment (Byers et al, 2018).…”