“…These predictions are based on positive associations between testosterone and adolescent and child problem behaviors (Bauman, Foshee, Koch, Haley, & Downton, 1989;Dabbs, Jurkovic, & Frady, 1991;Finkelstein et al, 1997;Susman et al, 1998), estradiol and adolescent problem behaviors and affective problems (Inoff-Germain et al., 1988), and pubertal status and adolescent problem behaviors (Ge, Conger, & Elder, 2001;Magnusson, Stattin, & Allen, 1986;Resnick et al, 1997;Silbereisen, Petersen, Albrecht, & Kracke, 1989). Studies also have found that early maturing adolescents are more involved in problem behaviors than adolescents who are on time or late in pubertal development (Cota-Robles, Neiss, & Rowe, 2002;Dick, Rose, Viken, & Kaprio, 2000;Flannery, Rowe, & Gulley, 1993;Halpern, Udry, Campbell, & Suchindran, 1993). We propose, further, that family, peer, school, and neighborhood contexts will moderate the associations between the biological factors and adolescent involvement with cigarettes and alcohol.…”