The Role of Micronutrients in the Infection and Subsequent Response to Hepatitis C Virus

Abstract

Micronutrient deficiencies develop for a variety of reasons, whether geographic, socioeconomic, nutritional, or as a result of disease pathologies such as chronic viral infection. As micronutrients are essential for a strong immune response, deficiencies can significantly dampen both the innate and the adaptive arms of antiviral immunity. The innate immune response in particular is crucial to protect against hepatitis C virus (HCV), a hepatotropic virus that maintains chronic infection in up to 80% of individuals if left untreated. While many micronutrients are required for HCV replication, an overlapping group of micronutrients are also necessary to enact a potent immune response. As the liver is responsible for the storage and metabolism of many micronutrients, HCV persistence can influence the micronutrients’ steady state to benefit viral persistence both directly and by weakening the antiviral response. This review will focus on common micronutrients such as zinc, iron, copper, selenium, vitamin A, vitamin B12, vitamin D and vitamin E. We will explore their role in the pathogenesis of HCV infection and in the response to antiviral therapy. While chronic hepatitis C virus infection drives deficiencies in micronutrients such as zinc, selenium, vitamin A and B12, it also stimulates copper and iron excess; these micronutrients influence antioxidant, inflammatory and immune responses to HCV.

Nutritional perspectives for the prevention and mitigation of COVID-19

“…Vitamins A, B complex, C, D, and E and many trace elements, such as iron, zinc, selenium, magnesium, and copper, have been shown to elicit immune-boosting properties, 14–16 and thus deficiencies of these micronutrients could be detrimental to immune function in viral infections. 17 Likewise, supplementing diets with micronutrients has been reported as a way to improve or optimize immune function against viral infections; therefore, public health officials must consider nutritional interventions as a means to combat emerging viral infections. 6 , 16 …”

Cytokine storm in aged people with CoV-2: possible role of vitamins as therapy or preventive strategy

“…Some studies have been carried out in patients with some chronic viral infections, like HBV, HCV, and HIV. These trials have shown the following in chronically infected patients: (a) serum concentrations of vitamins A, E, D and C are decreased [72,73], (b) vitamins A, D, E and C deficiency is associated with higher levels of viral replication as well as with higher titers of pro-inflammatory cytokines, like IL-6 and TNF-α, or with illness severity in some studies carried out in different virus-associated diseases [72][73][74][75][76][77][78][79], (c) vitamins may suppress or reduce viral replication or load in different virus infections both in adults and in children [80][81][82][83][84].…”

Current Trends of Essential Trace Elements in Patients with Chronic Liver Diseases

“…The inhibitory roles of these essential trace elements are revealed in the translation, transcription, and replication of hepatitis viruses, including hepatitis B virus (HBV), hepatitis C virus (HCV), and hepatitis E virus (HEV). Se and Zn were demonstrated to suppress the transcription and replication of hepatitis viruses [ 8 , 9 ]. Table 1 shows the function of such trace elements in the translation, transcription, and replication of these viruses.…”