The Role of Functional Efficiency in the Decline of North America’s Copper Culture (8000–3000 BP): an Experimental, Ecological, and Evolutionary Approach

Optimal Linear Estimation (OLE) Modeling Supports Early Holocene (9000–8000 RCYBP) Copper Tool Production in North America

“…Admittedly, it is uncertain precisely how early copper tools would have functioned as adaptive modifications to an already successful technological system, or what advantage (if any) they may have offered plains hunters. Indeed, experimental research has demonstrated that there is no significant difference in penetration depth between projectile points made from copper and those made from stone (Bebber 2021; Bebber and Eren 2018). Therefore, it is likely that other factors—such as the increased durability of copper tools (Bebber et al 2019) or, alternatively, the limited availability of lithic raw materials (Hill 2012)—were driving the interest in copper projectile points.…”

“…Geochemical studies have revealed signatures in Copper Falls Lake and Lake Manganese that suggest that copper mining and processing began in the Upper Peninsula as early as approximately 7000 RCYBP (Pompeani et al 2013). This suggests that copper usage had accelerated to a magnitude warranting the increased energy expenditure associated with copper mining (Bastian 1963; Bebber 2021; Trotter 2017) by the transition from Late Paleoindian to Early Archaic period in the Lake Superior region.…”

“…1. It has been cited in multiple locations (e.g., Pompeani et al [2021] and also on the Milwaukee Public Museum website) that Binford (1962) provides a primary source of reference for the date of 7560 RCYBP. Lab numbers are not reported along with this radiocarbon date, and the precise origin for this reference is unknown.…”

“…Despite the fact that a strict chronology for North American copper tool evolution is sorely lacking (Bebber 2021; Martin 1993), it is generally thought that the earliest copper tool forms were broadly similar to Late Paleoindian stone point forms, specifically “lanceolate” types related to Plano groups (Pettipas 1985; Steinbring 1975; 1991). Specific styles of copper points (Figure 1), defined as McCreary points (Steinbring 1968), appear to be morphologically analogous to Late Paleoindian projectile points.…”

Refining the chronology of North America’s copper using traditions: A macroscalar approach via Bayesian modeling

“…Later studies focused on the role of copper in Archaic Period societies [ 28 ], the nature of tool use [ 29 , 30 ], tool production techniques [ 31 – 33 ], and copper sourcing [ 34 – 38 ]. Recent research has focused on the nature of exchange-based relationships [ 39 , 40 ], population dynamics and changing social structure [ 41 ], as well as experimental research on copper tool functional efficiency and the interrelated factors affecting technological change [ 42 – 45 ].…”