The Role of Fire in the Life of an Adhesive

Cnuts, Dries; Tomasso, Sonja; Rots, Veerle

doi:10.1007/s10816-017-9361-z

Cited by 29 publications

(22 citation statements)

References 77 publications

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“…Microscopic examination, if not substantiated by chemical analysis cannot be considered conclusive for the identification of resinous material [24, 25]. GC/MS is currently considered the most robust method or the taxonomic characterization of organic adhesives [26]. This procedure has been successfully used in South African Middle Stone Age and Later Stone Age sites such as Sibudu, Diepkloof and Border Cave [27–31].…”

Section: Introduction: the Identification Of Haftingmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…The main problem of this method, considered the most reliable method for the identification of organic adhesives [26] comes from the low level of preservation of organic residues. GC/MS analysis of one quartz flake in the Late Howiesons Poort layers of Diepkloof attested to the exploitation of resin from Podocarpus elongatus used for lateral hafting [30].…”

Section: Introduction: the Identification Of Haftingmentioning

confidence: 99%

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Hafting of Middle Paleolithic tools in Latium (central Italy): New data from Fossellone and Sant’Agostino caves

et al. 2019

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Hafting of stone tools was an important advance in the technology of the Paleolithic. Evidence of hafting in the Middle Paleolithic is growing and is not limited to points hafted on spears for thrusting or throwing. This article describes the identification of adhesive used for hafting on a variety of stone tools from two Middle Paleolithic caves in Latium, Fossellone Cave and Sant’Agostino Cave. Analysis of the organic residue by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry shows that a conifer resin adhesive was used, in one case mixed with beeswax. Contrary to previous suggestions that the small Middle Paleolithic tools of Latium could be used by hand and that hafting was not needed since it did not improve their functionality, our evidence shows that hafting was used by Neandertals in central Italy. Ethnographic evidence indicates that resin, which dries when exposed to air, is generally warmed by exposure to a small fire thus softened to be molded and pushed in position in the haft. The use of resin at both sites suggests regular fire use, as confirmed by moderate frequencies of burnt lithics in both assemblages. Lithic analysis shows that hafting was applied to a variety of artifacts, irrespective of type, size and technology. Prior to our study evidence of hafting in the Middle Paleolithic of Italy was limited to one case only.

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Section: Introduction: the Identification Of Haftingmentioning

confidence: 99%

Section: Introduction: the Identification Of Haftingmentioning

confidence: 99%

Hafting of Middle Paleolithic tools in Latium (central Italy): New data from Fossellone and Sant’Agostino caves

et al. 2019

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“…Current studies on residue preservation and diagenesis are relatively few and have often been conducted under field conditions (Cnuts et al 2017;Langejans 2010;Monnier and May 2019). Future research should be conducted in a laboratory setting focusing on isolated variables, such as pH level, UV exposure, or freeze-thaw cycles, (e.g.…”

Section: Environmental Factors Influencing Adhesive Preservationmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…The production of birch bark tar by Neandertals has also featured in discussions about their technological knowledge and abilities, including their use and control of fire (Kozowyk et al 2017b;Niekus et al 2019;Roebroeks and Soressi 2016;Roebroeks and Villa 2011;Villa and Soriano 2010;Wragg Sykes 2015). A range of experimental work has provided further background knowledge on the material properties and the effects of fire on adhesive residues (Cnuts et al 2017;Kozowyk et al 2016Kozowyk et al , 2017aZipkin et al 2014). Advances in chemical analyses have improved our ability to accurately identify adhesive types based on smaller and smaller residues (Cnuts et al 2018;Hayes et al 2019;Monnier et al 2013Monnier et al , 2017Monnier et al , 2018.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Understanding preservation and identification biases of ancient adhesives through experimentation

Kozowyk

Gijn

Langejans

2020

Archaeol Anthropol Sci

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Adhesive production is one of the earliest forms of transformative technology, predating ceramics and metallurgy by over 150,000 years. The study of the adhesives used by Neandertals and early modern humans currently plays a significant role in debates about human technological and cognitive evolution. Depending on the type of adhesive used, different production sequences were required. These can vary in complexity and would have needed different knowledge, expertise, and resources to manufacture. However, our knowledge of this important technological development is severely hampered by poorly understood taphonomic processes, which affects the preservation and identification of adhesive materials and leads to a research bias. Here we present the results from a 3-year field preservation experiment. Flint flakes hafted and non-hafted with replica adhesives were left to weather naturally on and below the surface at two locations with different soils and climatic conditions. Differential preservation was recorded on a variety of natural adhesives by digitally measuring the surface area of each residue before and after the elapsed time. Residues were further assessed and photographed using metallographic optical microscopy. Results show that certain adhesives preserve to a significantly higher degree than others, while some materials may be more easily overlooked or visually misdiagnosed. We must therefore be aware of both taphonomic and identification biases when discussing ancient adhesive technology. This research provides a first look that will help us understand the disparities between which adhesives were used in the past and what we find in the archaeological record today.

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“…These experiments are not the only report of incidental black organic residues forming underground. Cnuts and colleagues [41] produced residue on a lithic through dry distillation when the lithic touched wood after both items were buried together under an experimental wood fire. A temperature of 340 °C and anaerobic conditions created suitable conditions for condensation of the terpenes [41].…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Underground transfer of carbonised organic residues to lithics during preliminary fire experiments: implications for archaeology

et al. 2019

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Using fire experiments, we investigate claims that black organic residues on lithics found in Stone Age sites are markers for heat treatment of rocks in the embers of aboveground wood fires. We buried sedges overlain with lithics and bone to replicate plant bedding sometimes found in archaeological sites. Small fires were lit over the material buried under a mixture of coarse-and medium-grained sand. Black carbonised residues formed on several lithics that were in direct contact with buried sedges that burned below the fire. FTIR, Raman and preliminary GC-MS measurements were made on dried and burnt sedge, burnt bone, and on a prominent black residue that formed on one quartz piece that had been in contact with buried fresh sedge when it was heated. Importantly, we were able to confirm the spontaneous and accidental transfer of organic compounds to lithics buried and heated underground in the presence of plant material. This means that carbonised organic residues are not useful markers for determining whether heat treatment of rocks took place above or below ground. Our preliminary experiments imply that further work should be done to investigate the causes of the residues formed on lithics underground.

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The Role of Fire in the Life of an Adhesive

Cited by 29 publications

References 77 publications

Hafting of Middle Paleolithic tools in Latium (central Italy): New data from Fossellone and Sant’Agostino caves

Hafting of Middle Paleolithic tools in Latium (central Italy): New data from Fossellone and Sant’Agostino caves

Understanding preservation and identification biases of ancient adhesives through experimentation

Underground transfer of carbonised organic residues to lithics during preliminary fire experiments: implications for archaeology

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