The Role of Fathers in Reducing Socioeconomic Inequalities in Adolescent Behavioral Outcomes

“Whatever they need”: Helping poor children through in-kind support.

“…Internalizing, externalizing, and delinquent behavior are all reduced significantly by fathers' investments of time, even when those investments are modest. Perceived closeness with fathers-a measure that is distinct from measures of father-child contact-also yields significant positive results (Gold, Edin, & Nelson, 2019), as does social involvement (i.e., the frequency of time spent, engagement, and number of days seen; Nepomnyaschy et al, 2019). Furthermore, the evidence for the benefits of nonresident father involve ment are more strongly associated than that of such fathers' cash contributions, whether formal or informal (Nepomnyaschy et al, 2019).…”

“…In studies that separate out formal from more informal contributions (i.e., cash paid directly to the mother and the provision of in-kind goods), the positive benefits of child support flow primarily from less formal contributions, especially the direct provision of goods, which is often referred to as in-kind support (Amato & Gilbreth, 1999;Argys et al, 1998;Nepomnyaschy et al, 2012). Newer studies drawing on contemporary samples have shown that in-kind support is more predictive of closeness in the father-child relationship and is associated with fewer internalizing, externalizing, and delinquent behavior problems in adolescence than formal support (Nepomnyaschy, Miller, Waller, & Emory, 2019). It is also more strongly associated with the quality and quantity of the time fathers spend with children than is formal support (Nepomnyaschy & Garfinkel, 2011;Nepomnyaschy et al, 2014;Waller et al, 2018).…”

“…Perceived closeness with fathers-a measure that is distinct from measures of father-child contact-also yields significant positive results (Gold, Edin, & Nelson, 2019), as does social involvement (i.e., the frequency of time spent, engagement, and number of days seen; Nepomnyaschy et al, 2019). Furthermore, the evidence for the benefits of nonresident father involve ment are more strongly associated than that of such fathers' cash contributions, whether formal or informal (Nepomnyaschy et al, 2019). In other words, investments of time may be more important than financial investments for adolescent well-being.…”

Head Start and Nonresident Fathers' Involvement with Children

“…Children in single-mother families are four times more likely to be living in poverty (40% vs. 8%) and spend less time in interactive parent-child activities than children in married two-parent families (Kendig & Bianchi, 2008). Several decades of theory and empirical research point to the importance of father involvement for numerous indicators of children's learning and positive development, and recent research suggests that this may also be true for involvement among nonresident fathers (Carlson & Magnuson, 2011;Gold et al, 2020;Lamb, 2010;McWayne et al, 2013;Miller et al, 2020;Nepomnyaschy et al, 2020;Tanskanen & Erola, 2017) [Correction added on 19th February 2021, after first online publication: Gold et al, 2020 reference citation was added].…”

“…Older research based primarily on samples of middle-class, divorced, and white families found that nonresident fathers' provision of child support, most often measured as formal support, and the quality of father-child relationships were positively associated with various indicators of child well-being (Amato & Gilbreth, 1999). More recent studies, including low-income, unmarried, and more diverse samples of families, have found that nonresident fathers' social involvement and provision of informal and in-kind support may be more beneficial to child well-being than formal child support (Garasky & Stewart, 2007;Nepomnyaschy et al, 2012Nepomnyaschy et al, , 2014Nepomnyaschy et al, , 2020. Overall, a growing body of more recent research suggests that multiple forms of involvement among low-income nonresident fathers promote child health, development, and economic stability, potentially mitigating some of the disadvantages associated with poverty and single parenthood (Adamsons & Johnson, 2013;Carlson & Magnuson, 2011;Choi, 2010;Choi et al, 2018;Choi & Jackson, 2011;Choi & Pyun, 2014;Garasky & Stewart, 2007;Gold et al, 2020;Jackson et al, 2019;Miller et al, 2020;Nepomnyaschy et al, 2012Nepomnyaschy et al, , 2014Nepomnyaschy et al, , 2020Nepomnyaschy & Donnelly, 2015;Nepomnyaschy & Garfinkel, 2011;Tanskanen & Erola, 2017) [Correction added on 19th February 2021, after first online publication: Gold et al, 2020 reference citation was added].…”