The Role of Exercise, Diet, and Cytokines in Preventing Obesity and Improving Adipose Tissue

Abstract

The prevalence of obesity continues to rise worldwide despite evidence-based public health recommendations. The promise to adopt a healthy lifestyle is increasingly important for tackling this global epidemic. Calorie restriction or regular exercise or a combination of the two is accepted as an effective strategy in preventing or treating obesity. Furthermore, the benefits conferred by regular exercise to overcome obesity are attributed not only to reduced adiposity or reduced levels of circulating lipids but also to the proteins, peptides, enzymes, and metabolites that are released from contracting skeletal muscle or other organs. The secretion of these molecules called cytokines in response to exercise induces browning of white adipose tissue by increasing the expression of brown adipocyte-specific genes within the white adipose tissue, suggesting that exercise-induced cytokines may play a significant role in preventing obesity. In this review, we present research-based evidence supporting the effects of exercise and various diet interventions on preventing obesity and adipose tissue health. We also discuss the interplay between adipose tissue and the cytokines secreted from skeletal muscle and other organs that are known to affect adipose tissue and metabolism.

Evidence-Based Effects of High-Intensity Interval Training on Exercise Capacity and Health: A Review with Historical Perspective

“…VO 2max [3,156,160,161]. In these studies, the first exercise sessions were generally an exercise that depleted muscle-glycogen stores, and the second exercise session was performed with low muscle-glycogen stores that potentiated the exercise-induced increase in genes linked to mitochondrial biogenesis and metabolism [156,160,161,[163][164][165].…”

“…These studies reported twice-daily exercise sessions (wherein the second session was commenced with reduced muscle glycogen stores) improved energy metabolism and induced skeletal-muscle cell-signaling pathways regulating mitochondrial and substrate metabolism [ 159 , 160 , 161 , 162 ]. Of the limited studies available, the twice-a-day approach has also been shown to be more effective than “once-daily” exercise for inducing adaptations related to substrate oxidation during submaximal exercise, endurance capacity, and O 2max [ 3 , 156 , 160 , 161 ]. In these studies, the first exercise sessions were generally an exercise that depleted muscle-glycogen stores, and the second exercise session was performed with low muscle-glycogen stores that potentiated the exercise-induced increase in genes linked to mitochondrial biogenesis and metabolism [ 156 , 160 , 161 , 163 , 164 , 165 ].…”

“…Exercise is a cornerstone in the primary prevention of chronic diseases including diabetes mellitus, cancer, obesity, hypertension, coronary heart disease, cardiovascular disease, and depression [ 1 , 2 , 3 ]. For centuries, exercise has long been prescribed by physicians as a medicine for their patients [ 4 ], and quotes attributed to Hippocrates, the father of Western medicine, include: “Walking is man’s best medicine” and “if there is a deficiency in food and exercise, the body will fall sick [ 5 , 6 ].” Evidence-based scientific guidelines suggest that exercise is a novel non-pharmacological strategy in the prevention and management of chronic diseases [ 7 , 8 , 9 , 10 , 11 ].…”

Effects of Intermittent Hypoxia on Cytokine Expression Involved in Insulin Resistance

“…Therefore, abnormalities in myokine secretion and function may have a direct influence on the worsening of insulin resistance. However, the mechanism by which myokines affect insulin resistance has not been fully elucidated [ 87 , 92 , 93 , 94 ].…”

Metabolic Syndrome and Sarcopenia

“…Exercise increases decorin (myokine associated with muscle fiber proliferation) and IGF-1, which have muscle-protein-synthesispromoting effects, and conversely decreases myostatin, which has muscle-protein-synthesisinhibiting effects [95]. A continuous exercise habit increases brown adipose tissue [98]. Brown adipose tissue also regulates myostatin secretion and is involved in the regulation of skeletal muscle mass and skeletal muscle function [99].…”