The Role of Essential Fatty Acids in Development

Abstract

The presence of docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and arachidonic acid (ARA) in human milk but not in infant formula, coupled with lower plasma and brain lipid contents of DHA in formula-fed than in breast-fed infants and reports of higher IQ in individuals who were breast-fed versus formula-fed as infants, suggest that exogenous DHA (and ARA) may be essential for optimal development. Thus, since 1990, several studies have examined the impact of formulas containing DHA or DHA plus ARA on visual function and neurodevelopmental outcome. Some of these studies have shown benefits but others have not. These results leave largely unanswered the question of whether these fatty acids are beneficial for either the term or preterm infant. However, evidence that preterm infants might benefit is somewhat more convincing than that for term infants. Despite the limited evidence for efficacy, formulas supplemented with DHA and ARA are now available and appear to be safe.

Moderation of breastfeeding effects on the IQ by genetic variation in fatty acid metabolism

“…The predominant long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LCPUFAs) present in human milk, but not in cow's milk or most infant formulas, are docosahexaenoic acid (DHA; 22:6n-3) and arachidonic acid (AA or ARA; 20:4n-6) (11). Substantial amounts of DHA and AA accumulate in the human brain during the first postnatal months (12), and infants who are breastfed have higher concentrations of DHA and AA than infants fed unsupplemented formulas (13,14). Evidence, in general, is consistent with the hypothesis that LC-PUFAs in breast milk may enhance cognitive development (15).…”

“…Human milk is widely promoted as good for the brain, and DHA and AA may be needed for optimal intellectual development (23). However, although evidence for this process is mounting, it has not yet been proven (12). The replicated Entries in the table are means and standard deviations.…”

Functional Food in Child Nutrition

“…In consequence, plasma and red blood cell LC-PUFA status is higher in breastfed infants than in infants fed non-supplemented formulas (Gil et al 2003). LC-PUFA content in maternal milk is an important factor to take into account in infant nutrition, because during the neonatal period there is a rapid increase of ARA and/or DHA in the body of the newborn, and more specifically in his/her brain and retina (Heird & Lapillonne 2005). It has been proposed that human milk LC-PUFAs contribute to the improved visual acuity, cognitive development, immune responses and motor functions of breastfed infants compared with infants fed formula without LC-PUFA (Heird & Lapillonne 2005;Innis & Friesen 2008;Rudnicka et al 2008).…”

“…LC-PUFA content in maternal milk is an important factor to take into account in infant nutrition, because during the neonatal period there is a rapid increase of ARA and/or DHA in the body of the newborn, and more specifically in his/her brain and retina (Heird & Lapillonne 2005). It has been proposed that human milk LC-PUFAs contribute to the improved visual acuity, cognitive development, immune responses and motor functions of breastfed infants compared with infants fed formula without LC-PUFA (Heird & Lapillonne 2005;Innis & Friesen 2008;Rudnicka et al 2008). As described later in the text, adding LC-PUFAs in adequate quantity and quality to infant formulas improves the LC-PUFA status for the infants consuming it, with beneficial effects on their visual acuity, cognitive and psychomotor parameters at 18 months of age (Lucas & Morley 1999;Innis et al 2002;Lapillonne et al 2003;Clandinin et al 2005).…”

Effect of Hatching Eggs Injection with Inactivated Newcastle Disease Vaccine and Two Doses of Cod Liver Oil on some Productive Traits and Immune Response of Broilers

“…Cod liver oil is a source of omega-3 essential fatty acids (Eicosapentaenoic acid EPA and decosahexaenoic acid DHA) (Guillen et al, 2008). In ovo administration of high quality polyunsaturated fatty acids such as Cod liver oil may improve energy during embryogenesis and hatching process, also, are important constituents of the immune cell structure with great physiological effects in birds, as well as, increase poultry productivity (Heird and Lapillonne, 2005;Shaikh and Edidin, 2006;Chang et al, 2010;Abdulwahid and Al-Zuhairy, 2013). The objective of this study to find out the impact in ovo administration with inactivated ND vaccine and two doses of Cod liver oil on hatchability, some physiological, productive traits and immune response of broiler.…”