The role of elaborations in learning a skill from an instructional text

Abstract

In these studies, we examined the role of elaborations for subjects learning a procedural skill (viz., using a personal computer) from an instructional text. In Experiment 1, we compared two sources of elaborations: those provided by the author and those generated by learners while reading. In the latter condition, subjects were given advance information about the tasks they were to perform so that they would generate more specific task-related elaborations while reading. Each source of elaborations facilitated skill performance. This result contrasts with results of the past experiments testing declarative knowledge in which author-provided elaborations were found to hurt performance. In Experiment 2, the author-provided elaborations were classified into those illustrating the syntax of the operating system commands and those explaining basic concepts and their applicability. Syntax elaborations produced significant facilitation for experienced and novice computer users. Concept elaborations produced no reliable improvement.An important question to both memory theorists and pedagogists is, "What variables will improve the learning and retention of written information?" One such variable that has been the topic of considerable speculation and research is the effect of elaborations (J. R. Anderson & Reder, 1979;Bransford, 1979;Chiesi, Spilich, & Voss, 1979;Craik & Tulving, 1975;Mandl & Ballstaedt, 1981;Mandl, Schnotz, & Tergan, 1984;Reder, 1976Reder, , 1979Weinstein, 1978). In the view of most researchers, there are several reasons why elaborations should help subjects learn and remember the main ideas of a text. Elaborations provide multiple retrieval routes to the essential information by creating more connections to the learner's prior knowledge. If one set of connections is forgotten, it may be possible to retrieve the desired information another way. Furthermore, if the learner forgets an important point, it may be possible to reconstruct it from the information that is still available.Elaborations can arise from two distinct sources: first, the text itself can contain elaborations of the main ideas, and second, the reader can generate them independently while reading. We use the same term for both types, because we define elaborations as any information that supports, clarifies, or further specifies the main points of a text. Elaborations can take many forms, including examples, details, analogies, restatements, and deductions.

Learning subgoals and methods for solving probability problems

“…For example, Kieras and Bovair (1984) found that only information that helped learners infer how to operate a device enabled them to learn more quickly than a group that learned to operate the device by trial and error. Similarly, Reder, Charney, and Morgan (1986) found beneficial effects for explanatory material that focused on the syntax of computer commands but not for material that focused on elaborations of computer concepts.…”

“…However, further work should be done to examine which features of the annotation are most beneficial for reducing negative transfer (i.e., applying an old method without adaptation) and for aiding the adapting of an old method. For example, it may be that the justification for using a particular method is the most important feature for reducing negative transfer (Lewis & Anderson, 1985), and it may be that calling the learner's attention to the methods themselves (a form of elaboration) is what helps the learner modify the method in a novel problem (Reder et al, 1986).…”

Comparing traditional and integrative learning methods in organizational training programs.

“…A critical component of IL-based training, the repetition of material using diverse media, is based on research showing that long-term memory is enhanced when material is repeated at optimal intervals rather than under massed practice conditions (Crowder, 1976;Goldstein, 1986). Additionally, heavy reliance on student-generated elaboration of the material, rather than trainer-generated explanations, facilitates learning (Reder, Charney, & Morgan, 1986) as would be expected under conditions that allow additional practice (e.g., Digman, 1959).…”

Categorizing Example Types in Instructional Texts: The Need to Consider Context

“…Examples play an important role In comprehension, e.g., (Houtz, Moore, and Davis 1973;Pirolli 1991;Reder, Charney, and Morgan 1986), and it is therefore important for an intelligent tutoring system to be able to present examples to the learner. A large number of examples can potentially be used to illustrate a given point.…”