The review of alpha‐linolenic acid: Sources, metabolism, and pharmacology

Abstract

α‐linolenic acid (ALA, 18:3n‐3) is a carboxylic acid composed of 18 carbon atoms and three cis double bonds, and is an essential fatty acid indispensable to the human body. This study aims to systematically review related studies on the dietary sources, metabolism, and pharmacological effects of ALA. Information on ALA was collected from the internet database PubMed, Elsevier, ResearchGate, Web of Science, Wiley Online Library, and Europe PMC using a combination of keywords including “pharmacology,” “metabolism,” “sources.” The following findings are mainly contained. (a) ALA can only be ingested from food and then converted into eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid in the body. (b) This conversion process is relatively limited and affected by many factors such as dose, gender, and disease. (c) Pharmacological research shows that ALA has the anti‐metabolic syndrome, anticancer, antiinflammatory, anti‐oxidant, anti‐obesity, neuroprotection, and regulation of the intestinal flora properties. (d) There are the most studies that prove ALA has anti‐metabolic syndrome effects, including experimental studies and clinical trials. (e) The therapeutic effect of ALA will be affected by the dosage. In short, ALA is expected to treat many diseases, but further high quality studies are needed to firmly establish the clinical efficacy of ALA.

Genome sequence and population genomics provide insights into chromosomal evolution and phytochemical innovation of Hippophae rhamnoides

“…The importance of UFAs and AsA to the human body need not be repeatedly emphasized. Similar to AsA, the human body cannot synthesize n‐3 PUFAs, including α‐linolenic acid, eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), and α‐linolenic acid can be converted into EPA and DHA in the human body, which make α‐linolenic acid even more vital to human health (Yuan et al ., 2022). α‐Linolenic acid is produced from catalytic linoleic acid desaturation at FAD3 and omega‐3 fatty acid desaturase (FAD7), which both belong to the ω‐6 fatty acid desaturase.…”

Nutritional and Phyto-Therapeutic Value of the Halophyte Cladium mariscus L. (Pohl.): A Special Focus on Seeds

“…Described in ethanol and water-related extracts (i.e., in all extracts except acetone), pinellic acid has recognized effective adjuvant activity, improving the immune response to a vaccine [ 51 , 52 ]; it has also demonstrated PPAR-α/γ transactivation activities [ 53 ], which could contribute to general health improvement since PPARs are directly linked to metabolism, being main regulators in energy homeostasis and metabolic function [ 54 ]. Compounds depicted in acetone-related and ethanol-related extracts (i.e., in all extracts except water) include gallo and epigallocatechins, which are some well-known tea catechins considered to be strong antioxidants, anticancer, antimicrobial, cardiovascular protective, anti-obesity, among others [ 55 , 56 ]; luteolin- O -hexoside and -6-C-glucoside (isoorientin), the later described as antioxidant, anti-neurodegenerative, and anti-diabetic [ 57 ]; resveratrol and oxyresveratrol, reported as antioxidant, anti-diabetic, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, neuroprotective, anti-cancer, anti-obesity, anti-melanogenic [ 58 , 59 ]; isoquercitrin, shown to have antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antidiabetic, cardioprotective, and anti-cancer activities [ 60 ]; and α-linolenic and 2-hydroxyhexadecanoic acids, the first being able to improve the blood lipid profile and with cardioprotective, anti-diabetic, anti-obesity, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, neuroprotective, and anti-cancer properties [ 61 , 62 ].…”

Effects of Dietary α-Linolenic Acid Treatment and the Efficiency of Its Conversion to Eicosapentaenoic and Docosahexaenoic Acids in Obesity and Related Diseases

“…Moreover, common obesity-associated features such as dyslipidemia, hypertension, and insulin insensitivity [12][13][14] that lead to the development of metabolic syndrome and increase the risk for the development of cardiovascular and other diseases such as type 2 diabetes and cancer are not found in all obese subjects [15,16]. ALA may play an important role in obesity and related diseases as well as obesity-associated comorbidities [17][18][19], but its effects are generally inconsistent and understudied, so future Molecules 2022, 27, 4471 2 of 23 well-designed controlled clinical trials could be needed. In addition to the listed features associated with obesity, the ectopic accumulation of the fat in the liver is often present, and it can lead to the development of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) [20].…”