The relationships of anxiety and self‐attention to running economy in competitive male distance runners

Abstract

Although running economy (RE) is an important physiological characteristic associated with superior distance running performance, little is known about the potential psychological correlates of RE. Therefore, the current study examined the relationship of anxiety and self-attention to RE. Anxiety was measured with the Sport Competition Anxiety Test (SCAT; Martens, 1977) and the Trait Anxiety Inventory (TAI; Spielberger et al., 1970). Self-attention was assessed with the Private Self-Consciousness (PSC) subscale of the Self-Consciousness Scale Revised (SCSR; Scheier and Carver, 1985). Running economy was determined by the oxygen cost of running at a submaximal velocity of 4.13 m s-1 (< 80% of maximal aerobic capacity). The subjects were 18 competitive male distance runners (mean 10-km race time 34.17 min). No relationship was found between anxiety (SCAT: r = -0.18, N.S.; TAI: r = -0.17, N.S.) and RE. However, PSC and RE were related (r = 0.50, P < 0.05), suggesting that runners who habitually directed attention inwards were also the most economical. Runners high in PSC may have been more economical because they were sensitive to muscle tension interfering with performance and subsequently employed relaxation techniques to reduce tension. Additionally, they may have employed cognitive techniques aimed at increasing RE such as positive self-talk and associative strategies. Despite the tenability of these explanations, the association between PSC and RE should be interpreted cautiously due to the small sample size.

The effects of facial expression and relaxation cues on movement economy, physiological, and perceptual responses during running

“…Specifically applied to emotional states (i.e., embodied emotion), manipulating the bodily expression of an emotion (e.g., facial expression) can influence how emotional information is processed and may be accompanied by self-reports of the corresponding emotion (e.g., Niedenthal, 2007;Niedenthal, Mermillod, Maringer, & Hess, 2010). Thus, simulated frowning may prime unpleasant feelings (e.g., Larsen, Kasimatis, & Frey, 1992) and, in contrast to relaxation, increase activation and muscle tension which may, in turn, reduce RE (e.g., Martin, Craib, & Mitchell, 1995). Furthermore, frowning muscle activity, termed the 'face of effort', has shown a moderate-to-strong positive relationship with effort perception during physical tasks (de Morree & Marcora, 2010).…”

Effects of anxiety on running with and without an aiming task

“…Martin and colleagues (Martin, Craib, & Mitchell, 1995) investigated the relationship between oxygen uptake and trait rather than state anxiety of 18 competitive distance runners during submaximal treadmill running. No correlation was found between trait anxiety and oxygen uptake.…”

“…However, an increase in anxiety was only visible for a short period at the beginning of the anxiety condition, suggesting that participants performed most of the anxiety condition under an anxiety level that was comparable to that of the noanxiety condition. In short, as Martin et al (1995) did not investigate state anxiety and Acevedo and colleagues' (1999) manipulation of state anxiety had methodological limitations, the question whether state anxiety affects running remains unanswered. Nonetheless, several studies have shown that the aerobic system can be influenced by psychological factors, such as relaxation and attentional focus (Caird, McKenzie, & Sleivert, 1999;Eaves, Hodges, & Williams, 2008;Martin et al, 1995;Schü cker, Hagemann, Strauss, & Volker, 2009).…”

“…In short, as Martin et al (1995) did not investigate state anxiety and Acevedo and colleagues' (1999) manipulation of state anxiety had methodological limitations, the question whether state anxiety affects running remains unanswered. Nonetheless, several studies have shown that the aerobic system can be influenced by psychological factors, such as relaxation and attentional focus (Caird, McKenzie, & Sleivert, 1999;Eaves, Hodges, & Williams, 2008;Martin et al, 1995;Schü cker, Hagemann, Strauss, & Volker, 2009). Schü cker et al (2009, for instance, found that different foci of attention (internal or external) during running led to differences in oxygen uptake.…”

Enhanced expectancies improve movement efficiency in runners

“…the ghrelin response; Crum et al, 2011). With respect to running economy and movement efficiency, a number of studies have indicated that motivational factors can influence physiological efficiency (Crews, 1992;Martin, Craib, & Mitchell, 1995). Other researchers have demonstrated that interventions that utilize psychological strategies, including relaxation, self-talk, and attentional focus instructions (Caird, McKenzie, & Sleivert, 1999;Hatfield et al, 1992;Schü cker et al, 2009;Smith, Gill, Crews, Hopewell, & Morgan, 1995) can alter running efficiency, including ventilation and oxygen consumption indices.…”