The Relations of Problem Behavior Status to Children's Negative Emotionality, Effortful Control, and Impulsivity: Concurrent Relations and Prediction of Change.

Abstract

The relations of children's internalizing and externalizing problem behaviors to their concurrent regulation, impulsivity (reactive undercontrol), anger, sadness, and fearfulness and these aspects of functioning 2 years prior were examined. Parents and teachers completed measures of children's (N = 185; ages 6 through 9 years) adjustment, negative emotionality, regulation, and behavior control; behavioral measures of regulation also were obtained. In general, both internalizing and externalizing problems were associated with negative emotionality. Externalizers were low in effortful regulation and high in impulsivity, whereas internalizers, compared with nondisordered children, were low in impulsivity but not effortful control. Moreover, indices of negative emotionality, regulation, and impulsivity with the level of the same variables 2 years before controlled predicted stability versus change in problem behavior status.

Relations of effortful control, reactive undercontrol, and anger to Chinese children's adjustment

“…When the children were age 4.5 to just turning 8 years of age, children with borderline or clinical level externalizing problems (comorbid or not), in comparison to nondisordered children, were low in attention focusing, attention shifting, and inhibitory control, and high in impulsivity. This same pattern of findings was obtained two years later (Eisenberg et al, 2005). At the first assessment, children with pure (not co-morbid) internalizing problems, in comparison to nondisordered children, were low in attentional effortful control and impulsivity, but did not differ in inhibitory control.…”

“…In United States, the relation of internalizing problems with anger was weak in early elementary school and increased with age into middle elementary school; thus, we were unsure if anger would relate to internalizing problems. We also were unsure about the relations of adjustment with attentional control because they were evident at a mean age of 6 but not 8 years in the United States (Eisenberg et al, 2005). As in the United States, relatively high attentional and inhibitory effortful control, low anger, and moderate impulsivity were expected to predict nondisordered status.…”

“…However, a number of others who have examined either more serious levels of adjustment problems or older individuals have found positive relations between anger/ frustration and internalizing problems (e.g., Blumberg & Izard, 1985;Keltner et al, 1995;Lemery et al, 2002;Silk, Steinberg, & Morris, 2003;Zeman, Shipman, & Suveg, 2002). Moreover, there is some evidence that the association between anger and internalizing problems increases in the elementary school years and is relatively clear by age 6 to 9 (Eisenberg et al, 2005). One might expect the relation between internalizing problems and anger to become stronger with age due to increased negative social experiences (e.g., peer rejection) for socially fearful, withdrawn children (Rubin, Bukowski, & Parker, 1998), at least in cultures that value confident, assertive behavior.…”

“…Children classified as internalizers two years later were low in impulsivity, but did not differ from nondisordered children in inhibitory control (and were higher than children with externalizing problems in this regard). Moreover, effortful control or impulsivity and negative emotionality (anger or sadness) often provided some unique, additive prediction of problem group designation (Eisenberg, Cumberland et al, 2001;Eisenberg et al, 2005). Valiente et al (2003) found that ego over-vs. under-control and effortful control provided some unique prediction of problem behaviors in younger children, but that by early adolescence, impulsivity did not provide unique prediction of level of externalizing symptoms.…”

Relations of maternal socialization and toddlers' effortful control to children's adjustment and social competence.

“…Specifically, when children are low in effortful control, they are likely to exhibit negative outbursts, to behave inappropriately with peers and adults, and to behave aggressively. Consistent with these expectations, researchers have found that low effortful control is associated with and predicts behavior problems in preschool and school-aged populations Eisenberg et al, 2005;Eisenberg, Spinrad, et al, 2004;Kochanska & Knaack, 2003;Olson, Sameroff, Kerr, Lopez, & Wellman, 2005). Although the majority of work has been done with older children, Kochanska and Knaack (2003) found negative relations between effortful control at ages 22, 33, and 45 months and later externalizing problems at 73 months.…”