The race toward a universal influenza vaccine: Front runners and the future directions

Fighting flu: novel CD8+ T‐cell targets are required for future influenza vaccines

“…67 Influenza vaccines utilising mRNA technology typically encased in a nanoparticle delivery vector are also in clinical trials. 34 mRNA technology was brought into the public eye by the COVID-19 pandemic, as many of the vaccines that were available were mRNA based. 68 mRNA vaccines utilise messenger RNA sequences of the viral protein of interest encapsulated in a lipid nanoparticle (LNP), which when delivered intramuscularly can facilitate viral protein translation.…”

“…69 Vaccines utilising mRNA technology have been successful in combating SARS-CoV-2 infection, the causative agent of COVID-19, and are now being trialled for the influenza virus. 34,70 Both Moderna and Pfizer-BioNTech vaccines are using mRNA technology to encode four separate HA glycoproteins and are currently in phase III clinical trials. 34,71 Finally, protein-based vaccines are also being used in the fight against influenza viruses.…”

“…34,71 Finally, protein-based vaccines are also being used in the fight against influenza viruses. 34,72 Protein-based vaccines typically incorporate large peptides or segments of whole protein (typically 20-35 amino acids) that stimulate humoral and cellular-mediated immunity (CMI) following subcutaneous or intramuscular vaccination. 34,72 Some examples of protein-based vaccines that are ongoing in clinical trials are the M-001 vaccine from BiondVax Pharmaceuticals (Phase III), the FP-01.1 vaccine from Immune Targeting Systems (Phase I) and the FLU-v vaccine from ConserV Bioscience (Phase II).…”

“…34,70 Both Moderna and Pfizer-BioNTech vaccines are using mRNA technology to encode four separate HA glycoproteins and are currently in phase III clinical trials. 34,71 Finally, protein-based vaccines are also being used in the fight against influenza viruses. 34,72 Protein-based vaccines typically incorporate large peptides or segments of whole protein (typically 20-35 amino acids) that stimulate humoral and cellular-mediated immunity (CMI) following subcutaneous or intramuscular vaccination.…”

“…Virus‐like particles are a specific type of nanoparticle which are also being utilised for influenza vaccines 34 . VLPs are generated by expressing viral proteins derived from structural proteins 58,59 .…”