The Psychology of Emotions

Izard, Carroll E.

doi:10.1007/978-1-4899-0615-1

Cited by 1,303 publications

(756 citation statements)

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“…Such a view is compatible with other formulations of emotional states as constellations or networks of particular physiological patterns, behavioral tendencies, and cognitions (e.g., Bradley & Lang, 2000;Izard, 1991;Lang, 1979; see also Herrald & Tomaka, 2002). Although it is common to clearly separate anger as an experience from aggression as a physical or verbal action intended to harm the target, this syndrome conception holds that levels of anger, attitudinal hostility, and aggression (as well as certain physiological patterns) are frequently at least moderately positively correlated, particularly if they result from a decidedly unpleasant situation.…”

supporting

confidence: 80%

“…Stein and Levine (1999), however, who are basically sympathetic to the appraisal perspective, were willing to accept babies' facial expressions as signs of a true emotion because the facial movements indicated that the babies had representations of a changed goal state (p. 387). Izard (1991) also viewed the babies' facial expressions as indicative of an emotional state (see p. 237).…”

Section: Frustration: Obstructing Goal Attainmentmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…Taken together, the appraised coping potential as well as this sense of being energized and powerful might parallel rather than cause the anger arousal. Izard (1991) suggested just this idea in his analysis of anger. He observed that "a feeling of power" (p. 237) and a sense of "selfassurance" (p. 254) often accompanies anger.…”

Section: Coping Potentialmentioning

confidence: 99%

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Toward an Understanding of the Determinants of Anger.

Berkowitz¹,

Harmon‐Jones²

2004

Emotion

487

417

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Research bearing on several popular conceptions of the major determinants of anger arousal indicates that the particular appraisals often identified as causes of anger frequently only serve to affect the intensity of the anger that is generated. Research into effects of physical pain or other physically unpleasant conditions or involving social stresses suggests that decidedly aversive conditions are a major spur to anger. Experiments are also reviewed showing that anger-related muscular movements can also lead to anger-related feelings, memories, cognitions, and autonomic responses. Alternative explanations for the findings are discussed. The authors urge emotion theorists to widen their methodology and analyses so that they give careful, detailed attention to the many different factors that can influence anger.A great many people are angry at one time or another. After surveying studies dating back to World War I, Averill (1982) concluded that "Depending upon how records are kept, most people report becoming mildly to moderately angry anywhere from several times a day to several times a week" (p. 1146). Perhaps because this emotion is so common, 1 specific definitions of this term often vary in detail (see Averill, 1982;Kassinove, 1995, for reviews of the many different usages of this word), and there are many different, and even opposing, cultural beliefs prescribing how and when this affective state should be managed.Although there certainly is no shortage of research articles dealing with anger, investigators inquiring into the development and functioning of emotions would do well to devote more of their effort and ingenuity to the study of this particular affective state. It obviously is a socially very important emotion, one that has attracted a great deal of attention in the mass media as well as in the various health fields, but it also presents emotion theorists with a number of intriguing conceptual questions. As just one example, there is the often-assumed relationship between hedonic valence and approach-avoidance inclinations. According to Watson, Wiese, Vaidya, and Tellegen (1999), positive affect is typically associated with approach tendencies, whereas negative arousal is usually linked to an urge to avoid the instigating stimulus. Anger seems to be relatively unique in this regard and is often associated with approach rather than with avoidance inclinations (see Harmon-Jones & Allen, 1998;Harmon-Jones & Sigelman, 2001). Then too, research into the conditions under which anger is aroused can also touch on the metatheoretical controversy as to whether emotions can be evoked independently of cognitions. Although we do not want to revive the now well-worn argument as to just what is involved in the concept cognition, if one adopts the relatively restricted definition favored by Izard (1993) and Zajonc Leonard Berkowitz and Eddie Harmon-Jones, Department of Psychology, University of Wisconsin-Madison.We thank the individuals who provided valuable comments on previous versions of this article: Jack B...

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supporting

confidence: 80%

Section: Frustration: Obstructing Goal Attainmentmentioning

confidence: 99%

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Toward an Understanding of the Determinants of Anger.

Berkowitz¹,

Harmon‐Jones²

2004

Emotion

487

417

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“…For example, Izard (1991) related state anger to self-assurance, physical strength, and bravery. A. H. Buss and Perry (1992) related trait anger to assertiveness and competitiveness.…”

Section: Personality Psychopathology and Perceptionsmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…Views of emotion vary considerably, in several respects. As one example, some people view emotions as a set of distinct modular entities, often considered basic emotions (e.g., Ekman, 1992;Izard, 1991;Izard & Ackerman, 2000;Levenson, 1994Levenson, , 1999Panksepp, 1998;Roseman, 1991). Others hold that affects are best understood by reference to underlying dimensions (e.g., Barrett, 2006;Cacioppo, Gardner, & Berntson, 1999;Carver & Scheier, 1998;Davidson, 1998;Gray, 1994a;Lang, Bradley, & Cuthbert, 1992Russell, 2003;Russell & Carroll, 1999a, 1999bWatson, Wiese, Vaidya, & Tellegen, 1999;Yik, Russell, & Barrett, 1999).…”

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confidence: 99%

Anger is an approach-related affect: Evidence and implications.

Carver¹,

Harmon‐Jones²

2009

Psychological Bulletin

1,377

1,165

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The authors review a range of evidence concerning the motivational underpinnings of anger as an affect, with particular reference to the relationship between anger and anxiety or fear. The evidence supports the view that anger relates to an appetitive or approach motivational system, whereas anxiety relates to an aversive or avoidance motivational system. This evidence appears to have 2 implications. One implication concerns the nature of anterior cortical asymmetry effects. The evidence suggests that such asymmetry reflects direction of motivational engagement (approach vs. withdrawal) rather than affective valence. The other implication concerns the idea that affects form a purely positive dimension and a purely negative dimension, which reflect the operation of appetitive and aversive motivational systems, respectively. The evidence reviewed does not support that view. The evidence is, however, consistent with a discrete-emotions view (which does not rely on dimensionality) and with an alternative dimensional approach.Keywords: anger, approach, appetitive system, avoidance, threat system Recent years have seen a surge of interest in emotional experience (e.g., Barrett, Niedenthal, & Winkielman, 2005;Dalgleish & Power, 1999;Davidson, Scherer, & Goldsmith, 2003;Frijda, 2007; Lane & Nadel, 2000;Lewis & Haviland-Jones, 2000;Ortony, Clore, & Collins, 1988;Panksepp, 1998; Rottenberg & Johnson, 2007; Scherer, Schorr, & Johnstone, 2001). Views of emotion vary considerably, in several respects. As one example, some people view emotions as a set of distinct modular entities, often considered basic emotions (e.g., Ekman, 1992;Izard, 1991;Izard & Ackerman, 2000;Levenson, 1994Levenson, , 1999Panksepp, 1998;Roseman, 1991). Others hold that affects are best understood by reference to underlying dimensions (e.g., Barrett, 2006;Cacioppo, Gardner, & Berntson, 1999;Carver & Scheier, 1998;Davidson, 1998;Gray, 1994a;Lang, Bradley, & Cuthbert, 1992Russell, 2003;Russell & Carroll, 1999a, 1999bWatson, Wiese, Vaidya, & Tellegen, 1999;Yik, Russell, & Barrett, 1999). AngerThis article focuses on one specific affect-anger. Specifically, it addresses the relationship of this affect to broad motivational tendencies of approach and avoidance, and it considers implications of that relationship for two areas of thought and research. We begin with a few words about definitions.Sometimes the terms affect, feeling, and emotion are treated as interchangeable (e.g., Isen, 2000); sometimes they are distinguished from each other (e.g., Fredrickson, 2001;. Affect is generally used to imply a hedonic experience, a sense of valence, a subjective sense of positivity or negativity arising from an event. When many use the word emotion, it is with that sense in mind. As Frijda (2000) put it, "For many theorists, the essence of emotion is feeling, and notably 'affect,' here used in the sense of a feeling of pleasure or pain . . . ." (p. 63). As Ortony et al. (1988) put it, emotions are ". . valenced reactions to events, agents, or objects . ." (p. 13). T...

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Positive and negative outcomes of anger in early adolescents

Mahon

Yarcheski

2000

Res. Nurs. Health

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The purposes of this study were to examine symptom patterns and diminished general well-being as negative outcomes and vigor and change as positive outcomes of trait and state anger via two structural equation models. In a school auditorium, a convenience sample of 141 boys and girls, ages 12-14 years, responded to the Trait Anger Scale and the State Anger Scale and to instruments measuring general well-being, symptom patterns, vigor, and change. In the negative outcome model, results indicated that diminished general well-being and increased symptom patterns were outcomes of trait anger and state anger in early adolescents. In the positive outcome model, contrary to expectation, less vigor and less inclination to change were outcomes of trait anger in early adolescents, while state anger had no appreciable influence on the same variables. The findings suggest that anger, particularly trait anger, had a negative influence on the outcome variables studied.

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The Psychology of Emotions

Cited by 1,303 publications

References 0 publications

Toward an Understanding of the Determinants of Anger.

Toward an Understanding of the Determinants of Anger.

Anger is an approach-related affect: Evidence and implications.

Positive and negative outcomes of anger in early adolescents

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