The psychological sting of stigma: The costs of attributing ostracism to racism

Goodwin, Stephanie A.; Williams, Kipling D.; Carter‐Sowell, Adrienne R.

doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2010.02.002

Cited by 112 publications

(102 citation statements)

References 36 publications

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“…For example, according to Schmitt and Branscombe (2002), members of disadvantaged groups are more likely to have experienced exclusion across a wide variety of contexts and may therefore be more sensitive to being treated negatively because of their group membership than members of privileged groups. Consistent with this, studies among Black and White participants in the US have found that Blacks are more likely to attribute exclusion by Whites to racism than Whites who have been excluded by Blacks (e.g., Mendes et al, 2008), and that Blacks tend to find exclusion by Whites to be more threatening than vice versa (e.g., Goodwin et al, 2010).…”

Section: Exclusion and Intergroup Hostilitymentioning

confidence: 67%

“…Several authors (e.g., Mendes et al, 2008;Williams et al, 2000) have argued that exclusion by ingroup members is likely to result in internal, self-blaming attributions, whereas exclusion by outgroup members is more likely to lead to external or grouplevel attributions. For example, people who are excluded by ethnic outgroup members may believe that they are primarily being evaluated in terms of their group membership, and they may think that they are the victim of discrimination or that those who exclude them are racist (e.g., Crocker, Voelkl, Testa, & Major, 1991;Goodwin et al, 2010). This may be a threatening experience, particularly when people wish to be evaluated in terms of their individual characteristics.…”

Section: Exclusion and Intergroup Hostilitymentioning

confidence: 99%

“…Although several studies have shown that exclusion (or ostracism) 1 may result in aggression toward those who exclude or reject (e.g., Twenge, Baumeister, Tice, & Stucke, 2001;Warburton, Williams, & Cairns, 2006), these studies have not examined whether such reactions vary as a function of whether the encounters are intragroup or intergroup. The few studies that have made ingroupoutgroup distinctions (e.g., Gonsalkorale & Williams, 2007;Goodwin, Williams, & Carter-Sowell, 2010;Mendes, Major, McCoy, & Blascovich, 2008) have tended to focus on more internally focused affective responses (e.g., irritation, sadness) and have not examined aggressive or hostile responses toward those who exclude. In addition, research on the antecedents of religious radicalization has generally yielded mixed results.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

See 2 more Smart Citations

Exclusion, intergroup hostility, and religious fundamentalism

Schaafsma

Williams

2012

Journal of Experimental Social Psychology

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Section: Exclusion and Intergroup Hostilitymentioning

confidence: 67%

Section: Exclusion and Intergroup Hostilitymentioning

confidence: 99%

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

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Exclusion, intergroup hostility, and religious fundamentalism

Schaafsma

Williams

2012

Journal of Experimental Social Psychology

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“…25,26 Cyberball was created purposefully to be a minimal paradigm, devoid of most social information so that the power of ostracism could be demonstrated. 21 Other research has modified Cyberball to include other social information to test various hypotheses about how the characteristics of both the sources (i.e., out-group status 27,28 ) and targets (i.e., stigmatized status 29,30 ) influenced ostracism's harm. Each of these paradigms manipulated this information creatively but still utilized a two-dimensional representation of the participant and the other players.…”

Section: Creating a Cyber-ostracism Paradigmmentioning

confidence: 99%

Virtually Ostracized: Studying Ostracism in Immersive Virtual Environments

Kassner

Wesselmann

Law

et al. 2012

Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking

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Electronic-based communication (such as Immersive Virtual Environments; IVEs) may offer new ways of satisfying the need for social connection, but they also provide ways this need can be thwarted. Ostracism, being ignored and excluded, is a common social experience that threatens fundamental human needs (i.e., belonging, control, self-esteem, and meaningful existence). Previous ostracism research has made use of a variety of paradigms, including minimal electronic-based interactions (e.g., Cyberball) and communication (e.g., chatrooms and Short Message Services). These paradigms, however, lack the mundane realism that many IVEs now offer. Further, IVE paradigms designed to measure ostracism may allow researchers to test more nuanced hypotheses about the effects of ostracism. We created an IVE in which ostracism could be manipulated experimentally, emulating a previously validated minimal ostracism paradigm. We found that participants who were ostracized in this IVE experienced the same negative effects demonstrated in other ostracism paradigms, providing, to our knowledge, the first evidence of the negative effects of ostracism in virtual environments. Though further research directly exploring these effects in online virtual environments is needed, this research suggests that individuals encountering ostracism in other virtual environments (such as massively multiplayer online role playing games; MMORPGs) may experience negative effects similar to those of being ostracized in real life. This possibility may have serious implications for individuals who are marginalized in their real life and turn to IVEs to satisfy their need for social connection.

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“…For example, several studies manipulated information about the team members to imply different reasons for exclusion. They found that permanently discriminating reasons, like gender or ethnicity increase distress or prolong negative emotional states (Goodwin et al 2010;Masten et al 2011b;Wirth and Williams 2009). Some contexts that enhance a positive self-identification after exclusion might have a buffering function as well (Wirth and Williams 2009).…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Contextual exclusion processing: an fMRI study of rejection in a performance-related context

Wagels

Bergs

Clemens

et al. 2016

Brain Imaging and Behavior

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Social stress has a major detrimental impact on subjective well-being. Previous research mainly focused on two methods to induce and measure social stress: social exclusion and performance evaluation. For social exclusion researchers frequently focused on the Cyberball task, which in contrast to many psychosocial stress paradigms does not include a performance component. The aim of the current study was to establish an optimized psychosocial stress paradigm by combining both, social exclusion as well as performance evaluation within a single fMRI paradigm. We implemented a modification of the Cyberball task including a performance game (with exclusion and inclusion periods) in addition to the already established exclusion and inclusion periods. This indeed resulted in increased subjective stress in the performance game. Hence, the modified Cyberball version seems to be superior in mapping relevant neural social stress correlates more pronounced and reliably. Exclusion within the performance-related context contrasted to the unmodified exclusion was associated with higher activation in the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex and the anterior insula. Moreover, the modified exclusion reflected greater social processing in the precuneus, several temporo-parietal and medial prefrontal areas, as suggested by the additional task aspects of social evaluation and social perspective taking. The findings emphasize that public negative evaluation is effective in substantially enlarging and potentiating the distressing effect of exclusion on a subjective as well as on a neural level. This may have a great potential for further experimental research on social stress.

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The psychological sting of stigma: The costs of attributing ostracism to racism

Cited by 112 publications

References 36 publications

Exclusion, intergroup hostility, and religious fundamentalism

Exclusion, intergroup hostility, and religious fundamentalism

Virtually Ostracized: Studying Ostracism in Immersive Virtual Environments

Contextual exclusion processing: an fMRI study of rejection in a performance-related context

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