The Prophet and the Age of the Caliphates

The Construction of the Umma: From Global Consciousness to an Aspirational Global Society

“…He also completed the subjugation of the Sassanid empire. 45 Nevertheless, according to Muslim sources, the most important legacy of 'Uthmān to the integration process of the umma was not territorial conquest. It was the codification and standardisation of the Qur'an.…”

“…83 These kingdoms' existence had been influenced by the whims of the great empires, evident in how Khusrau II abolished the Lakhmid kingdom of Hira in 602 and replaced the Lakhmid king with a Persian governor. 84 Unlike the Ghassanids and Lakhmids who maintained close relationships with the great powers, the Quraysh tribe that inhabited Mecca sought relative independence from them. 85 The only intense interaction between the Quraysh and the outsiders was Abraha's assault on Mecca (ca.…”

Islam: Ideology and Conflict

“…As Kennedy notes, "Muslims still formed a very small proportion of the population of the Near East." 32 As a result, the Umayyad administration was in many respects secular creating issues of religious legitimacy. Nevertheless, it was the Umayyad political compromises or flexibility that enabled Arab culture and language to become that of the ruling class and its retainers and Islam to become the religion of the ruling class.…”

“…In the hinterland of the empire, governors and regional military commanders faced increasingly restive and fractious populations. 35 In Syria, the fundamental fissures that had existed from the beginning resurfaced. Within the ruling elite, there were two primary factions-the Yamanis and the Qays.…”

“…The move to Samarra enabled the Caliph to reward his new military with land and to separate them from the anti-caliphal influences in Baghdad. 50 The political nature of the conflicts was further illustrated by the rise of Caliph Mutawakkil (reign 847-861). Mutawakkil wanted to rid himself of the Samarran elite that had dominated the administration since the reign of Mutassim.…”