The Process of “Pushing Out”: Accumulated Disadvantage across School Punishment and Math Achievement Trajectories

Abstract

Students drop out of school for a variety of reasons, yet are “pushed out” when they exhibit traits that are deemed undesirable to school officials, such as misbehavior and academic failure. While much of the previous research on pushouts views the phenomenon as a discrete occurrence often attributed to either misbehavior or academic failure, we recognize the underlying relationships between punishment and achievement, and therefore conceptualize pushing out as a process of both disciplinary involvement and academic exclusion over time. Using structural equation modeling (SEM) with a nationally representative longitudinal study of high school students (HSLS-09), we find that significant relationships among punishment and math achievement (including math attitudes, ability, and course-taking) have the effect of pushing students out of high school over time. We note the importance of race and ethnicity within these relationships and close with a discussion of policy implications.

School Discipline, Police Contact, and GPA: A Mediation Analysis

“…Furthermore, results from a meta-analysis indicate a significant inverse relationship between suspension and academic achievement, as well as a significant positive relationship between suspension and dropping out of high school (Noltemeyer et al, 2015). More recent scholarship that uses national data documents similar findings: Students who experience school discipline appear to suffer substantial and long-term educational consequences related to academic achievement and high school completion (Andrew & Blake, 2023;Jabbari & Johnson, 2022). Further, within school districts, racial disparities in punishment are associated with larger racial gaps in academic achievement (Pearman et al, 2019).…”

“…As Mallett (2016) describes, not only do schools rely on exclusionary disciplinary measures, but educational settings are also being “criminalized” through the use of metal detectors and security cameras, as well as a reliance on school resource officers (SROs), police officers, or security guards. Criminalization in schools, some have argued, leads to pushout and the criminalization of students in other places outside school as well (Jabbari & Johnson, 2022; Mark et al, 2022; Rios, 2011).…”

Double jeopardy? Examining the influence of mathematics tracking on in‐school suspensions through an intersectionality framework

“…Seeking to explore how school discipline outcomes influence students' enrollment in mathematics courses, Jabbari and Johnson (2022) found a significant relationship between math course‐taking and school punishment. Students who frequently received a disciplinary outcome were less likely to take advanced mathematics courses even when accounting for prior math courses, which culminated in future academic disadvantages (Jabbari & Johnson, 2020).…”

“…One recent study delves into this line of research in the area of mathematics. Jabbari and Johnson (2022) found a relationship between students' limited access to higher‐level mathematics coursework and higher levels of in‐school suspensions. Access to higher‐level mathematics coursework is not the result of 1 year, rather students are often tracked into non‐advance and advanced mathematics coursework starting their freshmen year.…”

Sexual Minority Status and Academic Achievement During the Transition to Adolescence Among Youth With Childhood Conduct Problems

“…Third, a combination of sexual minority status and conduct problems may also make sexual minority youth more vulnerable to punishment in schools, an experience associated with poorer subsequent academic performance (Jabbari & Johnson, 2022). Sexual minority youth are more likely to experience disciplinary measures in schools, even after accounting for differences in rule breaking behaviors (Mittleman, 2018; Poteat et al, 2016; Snapp et al, 2015).…”