“…There has been much research on the best way for women to bear down during the second stage, all indicating that directed pushing (prolonged breath holding and straining throughout the contraction) is associated with higher rates of fetal and neonatal hypoxia than spontaneous bearing down (Aldrich et al, 1995;Crawford, 1983;Nikodem, 2001;Petersen & Besuner, 1997;Roberts, 2002;Walsh, 2000) and possibly greater perineal damage (Allen, Hosker, Smith, & Warrell, 1990;Beynon, 1957;Handa, Harris, & Ostergard, 1996). Despite negative outcomes with directed pushing, spontaneous pushing has not been widely implemented, which illustrates the difficulty of incorporating evidence-based practice into perinatal units (Niesen & Quirk, 1997;Roberts, 2002).…”