The Prevalence of Vitamin and Mineral Deficiencies and High Levels of Non-Essential Heavy Metals in Saudi Arabian Adults

Abstract

Although the micronutrient status of a population is of high national priority, as it critically impacts public health, limited data is available for quantifying the micronutrient status in Saudi Arabia. We aimed to provide comprehensive, epidemiological, descriptive data regarding micronutrient levels in Saudi adults. This cross-sectional study included 3432 adults aged ≥ 18 years (mean age, 37.7 ± 11.7 years; women, 51.2%) across all 13 Saudi administrative regions (March 2019–November 2021). Laboratory data for 14 micronutrients (8 vitamins, 4 minerals, and 2 nonessential heavy metals) were characterized using descriptive analysis. Vitamin D deficiency (64.3%) was the most prevalent, followed by vitamin B2 (44.9%) and A (9.6%) deficiencies. Among minerals, iron deficiency was the most prevalent (23.2%), followed by zinc (15.3%) and copper (8.7%) deficiencies. Most Saudi adults exhibited normal arsenic (99.7%) and mercury (99.9%) levels. Men exhibited significantly higher vitamin B2, B9, and D deficiencies than women, while women exhibited higher vitamin A, B12, iron, and zinc deficiencies than men. Younger adults demonstrated a significantly higher prevalence of vitamin D and iron deficiencies, whereas older adults exhibited a higher prevalence of vitamin B1 and magnesium deficiencies. As micronutrient deficiencies are a public health concern, health policies and programs need to be developed and implemented to address them.

Prevalence and Time Trends of Low Serum B12 Levels and Inadequate B12 Dietary Intake in Lebanese Adults amidst the Food Insecurity Situation: Findings from a Nationally Representative Cross-Sectional Study

“…Furthermore, 61.1% presented with a low level (23%) or an intermediate level (38.1%). When compared to other studies, regionally, the prevalence of low levels appeared to be higher in Jordan (30.1%) [51] and Iran (27.1%) [34] but lower in Saudi Arabia (7.5%) [52] than our study finding (23%). Internationally, all studies except India (34%) [46] reported a lower prevalence of low serum levels of B12, including Bangladesh (~<15%) [53], Liechtenstein (13.4%) [54], Panama (11.8%) [55], Spain (10.9%) [43], Costa Rica (11.2%) [56], the UK (6%) [42], Ireland (6%) [57], Canada (~<6%) [58], Ecuador (5.46%) [39], the US (~3-4% in 1999-2002 [41] and ~<7% in 2003-2006 [59]), France (3.3%) [60], Australia (2.3%) [61], and Korea (~<2%) [62].…”

“…Furthermore, the most participants with low serum levels of B12 in the current study were females (68.6%), which was expected given the lower dietary B12 intake of females compared to males. The results from some studies aligned with ours [52][53][54], while others found a higher prevalence of low serum levels of B12 in males [73]. In short, females in Lebanon were found to be susceptible to low dietary intake and low serum levels of B12 in our population, presumably due to altered dietary patterns.…”

“…Internationally, all studies except India (34%) [ 46 ] reported a lower prevalence of low serum levels of B12, including Bangladesh (~<15%) [ 53 ], Liechtenstein (13.4%) [ 54 ], Panama (11.8%) [ 55 ], Spain (10.9%) [ 43 ], Costa Rica (11.2%) [ 56 ], the UK (6%) [ 42 ], Ireland (6%) [ 57 ], Canada (~<6%) [ 58 ], Ecuador (5.46%) [ 39 ], the US (~3–4% in 1999–2002 [ 41 ] and ~<7% in 2003–2006 [ 59 ]), France (3.3%) [ 60 ], Australia (2.3%) [ 61 ], and Korea (~<2%) [ 62 ]. As for our alarming prevalence of low to intermediate levels of B12 combined together (61.1%), it unexpectedly appeared to be the highest of all published studies that assessed the prevalence of low serum levels of B12 to our knowledge, including Jordan (43.5%) regionally [ 52 ]; and Costa Rica (42.4%) [ 56 ], Panama (37.5%) [ 55 ], Canada (~<28%) [ 58 ], the US (17–20%) [ 41 ], Australia (14.7%) [ 61 ], Brazil (6.4%) [ 63 ], and Finland (4.7%) [ 64 ] internationally. This raises public health concerns regarding the nutritional status of the Lebanese population.…”

Population-Level Nutritional Well-Being: Nutrition Security and Equitability

“…These findings suggest that alkaline-promoting diets tend to meet the Dietary Guidelines for Americans Guidelines’ recommendations on some macronutrients. Another study by Albalawi et al [ 7 ] examined the prevalence of micronutrients and arsenic levels among individuals in Saudi Arabia. The study reported that among the 14 micronutrients, adults in the sample were more deficient in vitamin D (64.3%).…”

Mercury Content in Impacted Wisdom Teeth from Patients of the Legnica–Głogów Copper Area—An In Vitro Pilot Study

“…In their study, Albawi et al [ 52 ] investigated the occurrence of vitamin and mineral deficiencies, as well as excessive levels of non-essential heavy metals, among adults in Saudi Arabia. The incidence of vitamin D deficiency exhibited variations based on age.…”