The Potential Role of Cytokines and Growth Factors in the Pathogenesis of Alzheimer’s Disease

Abstract

Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is one of the most prominent neurodegenerative diseases, which impairs cognitive function in afflicted individuals. AD results in gradual decay of neuronal function as a consequence of diverse degenerating events. Several neuroimmune players (such as cytokines and growth factors that are key players in maintaining CNS homeostasis) turn aberrant during crosstalk between the innate and adaptive immunities. This aberrance underlies neuroinflammation and drives neuronal cells toward apoptotic decline. Neuroinflammation involves microglial activation and has been shown to exacerbate AD. This review attempted to elucidate the role of cytokines, growth factors, and associated mechanisms implicated in the course of AD, especially with neuroinflammation. We also evaluated the propensities and specific mechanism(s) of cytokines and growth factors impacting neuron upon apoptotic decline and further shed light on the availability and accessibility of cytokines across the blood-brain barrier and choroid plexus in AD pathophysiology. The pathogenic and the protective roles of macrophage migration and inhibitory factors, neurotrophic factors, hematopoietic-related growth factors, TAU phosphorylation, advanced glycation end products, complement system, and glial cells in AD and neuropsychiatric pathology were also discussed. Taken together, the emerging roles of these factors in AD pathology emphasize the importance of building novel strategies for an effective therapeutic/neuropsychiatric management of AD in clinics.

Roles of Altered Macrophages and Cytokines: Implications for Pathological Mechanisms of Postmenopausal Osteoporosis, Rheumatoid Arthritis, and Alzheimer’s Disease

“…They also produce various antiinflammatory, chemokines and growth factors, such as IL-2, IL-4, IL-10, CXCL8, FGF2, IGF-1, and TGF-b1, which have been shown to exert neuroprotective effects against amyloid-b-induced neurodegeneration (85)(86)(87)(88). Other microglia-derived factors such as VEGFA, MMP2, and MMP9, are associated with disruption of the blood-brain barrier, leading to neuroinflammation and progression of AD (89)(90)(91). Combined with the role of macrophages in PMOP mentioned above, simultaneous tracing of the common pathological molecular network associated with cytokines (bone-BM macrophages and microglia) in PMOP and AD may reveal the key pathological links between the two diseases.…”

Betelvine (Piper betle L.): A comprehensive insight into its ethnopharmacology, phytochemistry, and pharmacological, biomedical and therapeutic attributes

“…Numerous neurological and psychiatric disorders such as Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease as well as epilepsy, migraine and essential tremors have caused severe human morbidity and mortality. 118 , 119 , 120 Depression, anxiety disorders and cognitive impairment are the most common comorbid diagnoses in neurological diseases. Treatment options include medications, cognitive‐behavioural therapy, somatic interventions or electroconvulsive therapy.…”

Recent Advances in Progresses and Prospects of IL-37 in Central Nervous System Diseases

“…The role of many cytokines in AD has been elucidated [ 71 ]. Tau and Aβ modified by advanced glycation end products stimulate human neurons to produce IL-6 [ 72 ].…”