The political glass ceiling: Gender, strategy, and incumbency in U.S. house elections, 1978-1998

The Neurosurgical Workforce in North America: A Critical Review of Gender Issues

“…As the image suggests, it refers to an invisible, yet impenetrable, barrier that keeps women from rising to the upper echelons of their profession, regardless of their qualifications or achievements (33). Data supporting the existence of this notion come from all professions, including, but not limited to, business, (24), law (72), politics (69), and academia (34).…”

Shattering the Marble Ceiling: A Research Note on Women‐Friendly State Legislative Districts*

“…We cannot, however, assume that such an index has application in other contexts without first examining its distribution and predictive power. On one hand, it seems intuitive that a women‐friendliness measure would be predictive for other institutions because there is a strong association between areas that elect female House members and areas that elect women to other offices (Palmer and Simon, ). On the other hand, substantial institutional variations in state and local governments may mitigate or alter the index's predictive power.…”

Research on Women in Legislatures

“…Research reveals that the single greatest obstacle to the election of women is the "incumbency factor." Since incumbents are reelected at a rate of more than 90%, it is very difficult for challengers to gain legislative seats (Jacobson 1997;Palmer and Simon 2001). Studies comparing men and women in similar races, including open seat contestants, challengers, and incumbents, find that women win just as often as men (Darcy and Schramm 1977;Deber 1982;Darcy, Welch, and Clark 1994;Carroll 1994;Burrell 1994;Seltzer, Newman, and Voorhees Leighton 1997;Gaddie, Hoffman, and Palmer 2001).…”