The Physical Legacy of Racism: How Redlining Cemented the Modern Built Environment

An, Brian; Orlando, Anthony W.; Rodnyansky, Seva

doi:10.2139/ssrn.3500612

Cited by 43 publications

(17 citation statements)

References 12 publications

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“…The CDC collects health outcome data on the state level, categorizing the data with Federal Information Processing (FIPS) two-digit codes that each identify a United States state or territory. We retrieved 12 outcome indicators: (1) obesity and (2) overweight status of adults (percentage of adults aged 18 years or older with an obesity and overweight classification, respectively, in 2017), (3) obesity and (4) overweight status of adolescents (percentage of teenagers in grades 9-12 with an obesity and overweight classification, respectively, in 2017), (5) diabetes in adults (prevalence of adults aged 18 years or older with diagnosed diabetes in 2016), ( 6) aerobic physical activity in adults (percentage of adults who had at least 150 minutes of moderately intense aerobic physical activity, or 75 minutes of vigorously intense aerobic activity, or an equivalent combination per week in 2017), (7) daily physical activity in adolescents (percentage of teenagers in grades 9-12 who had one hour or more of moderate to vigorous physical activity on a daily basis in 2017), (8) premature mortality (cases of premature mortality per 100,000 among adults aged 45 to 64 years), (9) diabetes mortality (cases of diabetes-related mortality per 100,000 in 2014), (10) cardiovascular disease mortality (cases of cardiovascular disease-related mortality per 100,000 in 2014), (11) park access (percent of USA population living within 1/2 mile of a park in 2015), and (12) youth recreational access (percent of youth with playgrounds, community centers, or sidewalks in their neighborhood in 2016). The classification of overweight and obesity is based on body mass index (BMI), with overweight classified between 25 and 30, and 30 or greater classified as obese.…”

Section: Methodsmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…Evidence of the ability of the built environment to drive long-term health outcomes can be seen in the health disparities between populations living in historically segregated neighborhoods. Discriminatory policies such as redlining, a real estate practice discriminating against money or credit borrowers from certain areas with poverty in the United States, has resulted in uneven urban development, creating distinct geographic areas that still face systemic disadvantages [8]. Many of these neighborhoods have built environment features that are detrimental to residents' long-term health, such as more alcohol outlets [9] and fast food restaurants, fewer recreational facilities [10], and higher levels of intra-urban heat [11].…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

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Google Street View Derived Built Environment Indicators and Associations with State-Level Obesity, Physical Activity, and Chronic Disease Mortality in the United States

Phan

Keralis

et al. 2020

IJERPH

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Previous studies have demonstrated that there is a high possibility that the presence of certain built environment characteristics can influence health outcomes, especially those related to obesity and physical activity. We examined the associations between select neighborhood built environment indicators (crosswalks, non-single family home buildings, single-lane roads, and visible wires), and health outcomes, including obesity, diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and premature mortality, at the state level. We utilized 31,247,167 images collected from Google Street View to create indicators for neighborhood built environment characteristics using deep learning techniques. Adjusted linear regression models were used to estimate the associations between aggregated built environment indicators and state-level health outcomes. Our results indicated that the presence of a crosswalk was associated with reductions in obesity and premature mortality. Visible wires were associated with increased obesity, decreased physical activity, and increases in premature mortality, diabetes mortality, and cardiovascular mortality (however, these results were not significant). Non-single family homes were associated with decreased diabetes and premature mortality, as well as increased physical activity and park and recreational access. Single-lane roads were associated with increased obesity and decreased park access. The findings of our study demonstrated that built environment features may be associated with a variety of adverse health outcomes.

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Section: Methodsmentioning

confidence: 99%

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Google Street View Derived Built Environment Indicators and Associations with State-Level Obesity, Physical Activity, and Chronic Disease Mortality in the United States

Phan

Keralis

et al. 2020

IJERPH

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“…In assessing foreclosure risk, the HOLC assigned four grades to residential areas in cities: A -best, B -still desirable, C -definitely declining, and D -hazardous. These grades were based on entire neighborhoods, rather than individual properties, according to a "City Survey Program" that rated the ethnicity, income, and occupation of residents along with housing conditions, explicitly discriminating against African Americans, Hispanics, and other minorities (An et al, 2019;Hillier, 2003;Jackson, 1980Jackson, , 1987. As a government-sponsored agency, the HOLC institutionalized residential segregation and directed certain investments and disinvestments in targeted communities.…”

Section: Historical Redlining and Environmental Inequalitiesmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…Redlining was a particularly widespread and consequential policy enabled by the Home Owners' Loan Corporation (HOLC) that mapped "mortgage security" grades in more than 200 cities in the United States. The HOLC was formed to control mortgage risks, address underwater mortgages, and foreclosed properties (An et al, 2019;Hillier, 2003). In assessing foreclosure risk, the HOLC assigned four grades to residential areas in cities: A -best, B -still desirable, C -definitely declining, and D -hazardous.…”

Section: Historical Redlining and Environmental Inequalitiesmentioning

confidence: 99%

Modeling the relationships between historical redlining, urban heat, and heat-related emergency department visits: An examination of 11 Texas cities

Newman

Wilson

et al. 2021

Environment and Planning B: Urban Analytics and City Science

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Place-based structural inequalities can have critical implications for the health of vulnerable populations. Historical urban policies, such as redlining, have contributed to current inequalities in exposure to intra-urban heat. However, it is unknown whether these spatial inequalities are associated with disparities in heat-related health outcomes. The aim of this study is to determine the relationships between historical redlining, intra-urban heat conditions, and heat-related emergency department visits using data from 11 Texas cities. At the zip code level, the proportion of historical redlining was determined, and heat exposure was measured using daytime and nighttime land surface temperature (LST). Heat-related inpatient and outpatient rates were calculated based on emergency department visit data that included ten categories of heat-related diseases between 2016 and 2019. Regression or spatial error/lag models revealed significant associations between higher proportions of redlined areas in the neighborhood and higher LST (Coef. = 0.0122, 95% CI = 0.0039–0.0205). After adjusting for indicators of social vulnerability, neighborhoods with higher proportions of redlining showed significantly elevated heat-related outpatient visit rate (Coef. = 0.0036, 95% CI = 0.0007–0.0066) and inpatient admission rate (Coef. = 0.0018, 95% CI = 0.0001–0.0035). These results highlight the role of historical discriminatory policies on the disparities of heat-related illness and suggest a need for equity-based urban heat planning and management strategies.

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“…More than 200 US cities were subjected to the same racist, federal policy, which systematically denied mortgages to minorities (i.e., Blacks and immigrants/foreign-born) seeking homes in more wealthy/affluent neighborhoods due their "perceived mortgage risk" [3]. This policy segregated minority communities from white communities and helped shape racial housing segregation [4] by devaluing nonwhite neighborhoods [5]. Commonly referred to as "redlining", the policy was a form of structural racism and discrimination that has and continues to have tremendous socioeconomic, environmental, and health implications today.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Linking environmental injustices in Detroit, MI to institutional racial segregation through historical federal redlining

Shkembi

Smith

Neitzel

2022

J Expo Sci Environ Epidemiol

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Objectives To identify the most pervasive environmental exposures driving environmental disparities today associated with historical redlining in Detroit. Methods We overlaid Detroit’s 1939 Home Owners’ Loan Corporation (HOLC) shapefile from the Mapping Inequality project onto the EPA EJScreen and the DOT National Transportation Noise maps to analyze differences in current demographic and environmental indicators between historically redlined (D-grade) and non-redlined neighborhoods using simple linear regression and a boosted classification tree algorithm. Results Historically redlined neighborhoods in Detroit experienced significantly higher environmental hazards than non-redlined neighborhoods in the form of 12.1% (95% CI: 7.2–17.1%) higher levels of diesel particulate matter (PM), 32.2% (95% CI: 3.3–69.3%) larger traffic volumes, and 65.7% (95% CI: 8.6–152.8%) higher exposure to hazardous road noise (LEQ(24h) >70 dBA). Historically redlined neighborhoods were situated near 1.7-times (95% CI: 1.4–2.1) more hazardous waste sites and twice as many (95% CI: 1.5–2.7) risk management plan (RMP) sites than non-redlined neighborhoods. The lifetime cancer risk from inhalation of air toxics was 4.4% (95% CI: 2.9–6.6%) higher in historically redlined communities, and the risk of adverse respiratory health outcomes from air toxics was 3.9% (95% CI: 2.1–5.6%) higher. All factors considered together, among the environmental hazards considered, the most pervasive hazards in historically redlined communities are proximity to RMP sites, hazardous road noise, diesel PM, and cancer risk from air pollution. Conclusions Historically redlined neighborhoods may have a disproportionately higher risk of developing cancer and adverse respiratory health outcomes from air toxics. Policies targeting air and noise pollution from transportation sources, particularly from sources of diesel exhaust, in historically redlined neighborhoods may ameliorate some of the impacts of structural environmental racism from historical redlining in Detroit.

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The Physical Legacy of Racism: How Redlining Cemented the Modern Built Environment

Cited by 43 publications

References 12 publications

Google Street View Derived Built Environment Indicators and Associations with State-Level Obesity, Physical Activity, and Chronic Disease Mortality in the United States

Google Street View Derived Built Environment Indicators and Associations with State-Level Obesity, Physical Activity, and Chronic Disease Mortality in the United States

Modeling the relationships between historical redlining, urban heat, and heat-related emergency department visits: An examination of 11 Texas cities

Linking environmental injustices in Detroit, MI to institutional racial segregation through historical federal redlining

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