The pathogenicity and virulence of Leishmania - interplay of virulence factors with host defenses

Abstract

Leishmaniasis is a group of disease caused by the intracellular protozoan parasite of the genus Leishmania . Infection by different species of Leishmania results in various host immune responses, which usually lead to parasite clearance and may also contribute to pathogenesis and, hence, increasing the complexity of the disease. Interestingly, the parasite tends to reside within the unfriendly environment of the macrophages and has evolved various survival strategies to evade or modulate host immune defense. This can be attributed to the array of virulence factors of the vicious parasite, which target important host functioning and machineries. This review encompasses a holistic overview of leishmanial virulence factors, their role in assisting parasite-mediated evasion of host defense weaponries, and modulating epigenetic landscapes of host immune regulatory genes. Furthermore, the review also discusses the diagnostic potential of various leishmanial virulence factors and the advent of immunomodulators as futuristic antileishmanial drug therapy.

Co-infection of Phlebotomus papatasi (Diptera: Psychodidae) gut bacteria with Leishmania major exacerbates the pathological responses of BALB/c mice

“…Clinical features of leishmaniasis is extremely intricate and depend on multiple factors, especially infecting parasite species ( Oshaghi et al., 2009 ; Thakur et al., 2018 ; Kato et al., 2021 ) and their virulence factors such as lipophosphoglycan, metalloprotease GP63, and elongation factor 1 alpha ( Gupta et al., 2022 ), as well as genetic background of the vertebrate ( Sakthianandeswaren et al., 2009 ; Krayem and Lipoldová, 2021 ), immune homeostasis of the host, and vector-derived product ( Serafim et al., 2021 ). However, balance between type 1 and type 2 immune responses, along with other regulatory mechanisms, plays an essential role in determining the outcome of leishmaniasis ( Costa-da-Silva et al., 2022 ).…”

Trace element zinc and skin disorders

“…However, this treatment is expensive and causes severe adverse reactions (67). The effects of zinc in treating CL have been examined.…”

“…Pentavalent antimonials are the first-line treatment used extensively worldwide against cutaneous leishmaniasis (CL). However, this treatment is expensive and causes severe adverse reactions ( 67 ). The effects of zinc in treating CL have been examined.…”

The paradigm of intracellular parasite survival and drug resistance in leishmanial parasite through genome plasticity and epigenetics: Perception and future perspective

“…Downregulation of signal recognition particle RNA through ncRNA for parasitic survival inside the host is found in M2 macrophages by inhibition of RNA pol III ( Misra et al., 2005 ). Additionally, L. donovani drives BRD4-p300-RNA-polII dependent unique super-enhancer element mediated miR146-5p transcription to promote parasite-supportive M2 macrophage niche ( Das et al., 2021 ; Gupta et al., 2022 ). Gp63 and LPG are surface glycoproteins and glycolipids of Leishmania , shown to downregulate ncRNAs in M2 macrophages, thus helping in parasite persistence ( Farrow et al., 2011 ).…”