The nexus between traditional foraging and its sustainability: a qualitative assessment among a few selected Eurasian case studies

Abstract

Plant foraging is an important human ecological phenomenon being studied by a number of contemporary ethnobiologists as well as by a few social anthropologists among rural communities and, more recently, in urban environments. The sustainability dimension of foraging is, however, largely unexplored. We analyse a few case studies from recent field research and qualitatively assess both the environmental and social sustainability of diverse patterns of traditional foraging practices in three distinct human ecological environments (horticulturalism-, forestry-, and pastoralism-driven) located in the Eastern Mediterranean, Eastern Europe, and North Pakistan, i.e. we address the question of when does traditional foraging become unsustainable and what factors may influence this. The main findings are multidimensional. First, in all case studies, we sometimes observed competitive foraging among the gatherers of certain wild food plants potentially causing ecological degradation; such unsustainable practices seem to be linked to the market pressure on certain species. However, also customs and norms promoted by states can be detrimental (former Soviet Union), as well as climate change (Eastern Europe), and marginalisation of some minority groups (Pakistan). Second, in the Mediterranean Syrian context, wild food plant resources are largely represented by widely available weedy “wild” vegetables, normally (but not exclusively) collected by women, and usually easily accessible; only very few wild food plants seem to be threatened due to specific market demands or to disequilibria created by household economic instabilities due to the recent war. We also argue that unsustainable foraging is enhanced by the abandonment of daily practices and continuous interaction with the natural environment and by the increasingly uneven distribution of active practical knowledge on wild food plants among the middle-aged and younger population. Facilitating the transmission of sustainable foraging knowledge and practices could be therefore crucial, also for coping with food insecurity in times of crisis; but for that to occur, holistic environmental and food educational frameworks, appropriate policies for fostering community-based biodiversity conservation and also social cohesion and communal management of lands should be seriously considered as well. Moreover, future gastronomic and eco-tourism initiatives, if organised in a thoughtful manner, could represent a positive turning point not only for the local small-scale economies of the considered rural communities but also for helping them to dynamically preserve the entire socio-ecological system underpinned in plant foraging and ultimately to better adapt to the current global crisis.

A transdisciplinary approach to define and assess wild food plant sustainable foraging in Norway

“…Literature detailing overharvest threats to plants' conservation notes that these are fuelled by a commercial demand beyond the local market (Ghimire et al, 2005; Law & Salik, 2005; Ouarghidi et al, 2017). Furthermore, if foragers are in a socio‐economically vulnerable situation, existing considerations of plant availability can be overridden by high market pressures, leading to overharvest (Aziz et al, 2022). Sustainable large‐scale commercial foraging, spanning multiple geographical scales and sites and where foragers' are not also the final resource users, requires a different definition and assessment that is not necessarily based on the reciprocal individual relationships of foragers with the harvested biodiversity.…”

The Importance of Becoming Tamed: Wild Food Plants as Possible Novel Crops in Selected Food-Insecure Regions

“…This clearly shows how significant is the role of wild plants in the resilience of people under conflict conditions. The sustainability of wild plant use is another crucial aspect that has been affected in recent years; local people reported that the abundance of several species has significantly decreased [15].…”

“…Vaccinium myrtillus is largely available in (Western) Ukraine, yet its productivity depends on the year and on the intensity of the previous harvest. In some areas of Ukraine, we observed an over-harvesting status of berries due to the crucial importance of this product for local economies of some Carpathian villages [15]. Corylus avellana is widely used as a building material for fences, decorations, and garden braces.…”

“…A previous study from a few Eurasian regions highlighted the importance of WFP species as a part of the traditional cuisine [15]. The role of wild plants becomes crucial when they contribute to the survival of local people in times of food shortage and unaffordability [16,17].…”

Should I Go Back to the Roots to Obtain My Food? Understanding Key Factors Driving U.S. Consumers’ Preferences for Food Foraging over Buying and Growing Food

“…Due to disruptions and distrust in food supply chains, consumers have gained interest in alternative ways forms of food procurement, including self-sufficiency and food foraging [7]. These alternative forms of food procurement allow consumers to avoid panic buying incidences [26], somewhat mitigate food insecurity, e.g., the use of food pantries and food stamps, and are in line with consumer trends in terms of healthy eating and gardening [34,35]. Amidst this background, the following hypotheses are proposed: Hypothesis 2a (H2a).…”