The Movement of Western Honey Bees (Apis mellifera L.) Among U.S. States and Territories: History, Benefits, Risks, and Mitigation Strategies

Abstract

Beekeeping is a cornerstone activity that has led to the human-mediated, global spread of western honey bees (Apis mellifera L.) outside their native range of Europe, western Asia, and Africa. The exportation/importation of honey bees (i.e., transfer of honey bees or germplasm between countries) is regulated at the national level in many countries. Honey bees were first imported into the United States in the early 1600’s. Today, honey bee movement (i.e., transport of honey bees among states and territories) is regulated within the United States at the state, territory, and federal levels. At the federal level, honey bees present in the country (in any state or territory) can be moved among states and territories without federal restriction, with the exception of movement to Hawaii. In contrast, regulations at the state and territory levels vary substantially, ranging from no additional regulations beyond those stipulated at the federal level, to strict regulations for the introduction of live colonies, packaged bees, or queens. This variability can lead to inconsistencies in the application of regulations regarding the movement of honey bees among states and territories. In November 2020, we convened a technical working group (TWG), composed of academic and USDA personnel, to review and summarize the (1) history of honey bee importation into/movement within the United States, (2) current regulations regarding honey bee movement and case studies on the application of those regulations, (3) benefits associated with moving honey bees within the United States, (4) risks associated with moving honey bees within the United States, and (5) risk mitigation strategies. This review will be helpful for developing standardized best practices for the safe movement of honey bees between the 48 contiguous states and other states/territories within the United States.

Phenotypic and genetic characterization of Africanized Apis mellifera colonies with natural tolerance to Varroa destructor and contrasting defensive behavior

“…Recently, colonies with desirable traits (docility, resistance to brood disease, and adaptation to a subtropical climate) have been characterized in the northwestern region of the country ( 58 , 59 ), offering an opportunity to preserve honey bee stocks for the development of sustainable apiculture in a subtropical climate. These hybrid colonies have possibly inherited the best characteristics from their European and African origins, as have previously been described in other regions of the American Continent ( 3 , 60 , 61 ).…”

“…These promising tools would add innovation to honey bee breeding programs at the regional level, thus improving the productive capacity and competitiveness of small and medium-sized honey producers. The selection and multiplication of honey bee colonies with promising characteristics for beekeeping can be benefited by the saturation of drone congregation zones with desired and known genetic characteristics and/or the use/implementation of reproduction stations and the movement of germplasm as have been previously described ( 3 and references therein).…”

Honey bee populations of the USA display restrictions in their mtDNA haplotype diversity

“…Meanwhile, Magnus et al‘s study provided evidence of A. m. syriaca in the USA, which we did not identify in this current study ( Magnus et al, 2014 ). According to the available records, this subspecies was imported to the USA in 1880 ( Marcelino et al, 2022 ). A. m. syriaca is a subspecies of the African lineage A, which carries a distinct COI-COII profile compared to other subspecies of the A lineage ( Alburaki et al, 2011 ).…”

“…The western honey bee species, A. mellifera L. is not native to the United States of America. It was first imported in the early 1600s and importations have continued since ( Carpenter and Harpur, 2021 ; Marcelino et al, 2022 ). However, many indigenous non- Apis bee species existed in the country long before the importation of the domestic honey bee to this part of the world.…”

Words matter: how ecologists discuss managed and non-managed bees and birds

“…For instance, the words used to refer to honey bees in the literature related to pollination services could hold different sentiments (negative, positive, or neutral) in comparison to the words used to describe these insects in papers related to diseases and pathogen spillover (Box 1). Importantly, in both groups of animals (bees and birds), managed species have escaped cultivation to establish populations in natural environments (e.g., Callaway, 2016;Marcelino et al, 2022). Honey bees' demographic history and establishment in natural areas is well-documented (Cridland et al, 2017, Moritz et al 2007.…”