The Mosul Question and the Turkish Republic: Before and After the Frontier Treaty, 1926

Abstract

The Mosul Vilayet was part of the Oltoman Empire until the end of the First World War. Following the war it was occupied by Britain and the Vilayet became the bone of contention between the Oltoman Empire and Britain. After the War of Independence, the new Turkish Republic considered Mosul one of the crucial issues determined in the National Pact. Despite constant resistance. Britain managed to bring the issue into the international arena. scaling it down to a frontier problem between Turkeyand Iraq. In the Turkish historical literature, the Mosul Question has been studied until the Frontier Treaty (1926). According to these studies, the Turkish government, in accordance with the exchange of letters annexed to the Frontier Treaty (1926), agreed to receive a fıxed clJsh settlement of 500,000 pounds, rather than calculating the amount on a ten percent basis. That is to say. the Turkish government received the 500 000 pounds and the folio of the Mosul Question was closed. But some fındings proved that this was not the case. Some fıgures in the Turkish state budgets indicate that Turkey received payments on a ten percent basis instead of the fıxed cash settlement. From 1931 to 1952 Turkey received royalty payments regularly. After 1952, two issues caused serious problems between Turkeyand Iraq; namely, the unpaid years and insuffıcient payments. In lalter period, Turkey chose to pursue a conciliatory policyand the issue was put aside for the purpose of establishing friendly relations with Iraq.

The Westphalian System of the Modern International Relations: Violation of Sovereignty, Ignoration of Indigenous Rights, and Extension of Medieval Practices in the Case of Mosul Occupation

“…The occupation that was part of the centuries-old Eastern Question on Ottoman lands was clearly against the Westphalian principles. The Eastern Question directly targeted the Ottoman Empire's territorial integrity after the European-led world politics of the eighteenth century, and it became established as a priority on the agenda of the Great Powers of Europe in the process leading up to the First World War (Coşar and Demirci, 2004). Thus, the fundamental principle that recognises the territorial sovereignty of states seems rather debatable when we look more deeply into the historical context of the First World War's political atmosphere.…”

“…The Mosul Question bequeathed from the Ottoman Empire to the newly established Turkish Republic could not also be resolved at the Lausanne Conference of 1922-1923. During the negotiations with the Allies over the Treaty of Lausanne, the Turkish government consistently maintained that Mosul had been illegally occupied by Britain and advocated that Mosul was in Turkish territory on several social, economic, political, ethnographic, geographical, and strategic factors (Coşar and Demirci, 2004). At the Lausanne Conference, İsmet Pasha, the head of the Turkish delegation, emphasized that the occupation of Mosul was against both international law and Wilson's Principles since it was legally occupied after the ceasefire was declared.…”

“…One of these examples which shifted modern world politics entirely is the British occupation of the Mosul Vilayet. Mosul was part of the Ottoman Empire until the occupation of Britain during the First World War (Coşar and Demirci, 2004). The occupation was a clear violation of the sovereignty and territorial integrity of a certain sovereign state.…”

Seashore readings: The road from sea baths to summerhouses in mid-twentieth century Izmir

“…Between 1950 and 1960, 86,961 motor vehicles of all kinds were imported. 51 Besides connecting rural areas to urban centers and agricultural production to markets, the greater availability of motor transportation and road improvements had social consequences. One significant consequence was moving larger masses to unspoiled seashores, which in turn, prompted higher demand for summerhouses.…”