The molecular mechanisms of sexual orientation and gender identity

Fisher, Alessandra D.; Ristori, Jiska; Morelli, Girolamo; Maggi, Mario

doi:10.1016/j.mce.2017.08.008

Cited by 40 publications

(34 citation statements)

References 186 publications

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“…In fact, in the last few years research has focused mainly on neuroanatomy and sexual dimorphism of the brain, exploring the influence and shaping role of several genes and sex hormones [4]. In particular, the sexual dimorphic brain is considered the anatomical substrate of psychosexual development, on which genes and gonadal hormones may have a shaping effect [11]. Growing evidence shows that prenatal and pubertal sex hormones permanently affect human behaviour and heritability studies have demonstrated a role of genetic components.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…However, the relationship between gender behavioural differences and brain dimorphic areas is still not clear, since such differences may be the result not only of anatomical features but also life experiences [34][35][36][37]. Furthermore, the popular explanation that there is a female and a male brain on the base of gender behavioural differences is not supported by a strong empirical background [11], as, for example, men and women share more similarities than differences [38][39][40][41][42][43]. Furthermore, a great variability in behavioural and psychological aspects is shown between genders [44].…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

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Brain Sex Differences Related to Gender Identity Development: Genes or Hormones?

Ristori

Cocchetti

Romani

et al. 2020

IJMS

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The complex process of sexual differentiation is known to be influenced by biological and environmental determinants. The present review has the aim of summarizing the most relevant studies on the biological basis of sexual development, and in particular, it focuses on the impact of sex hormones and genetic background on the development of sexual differentiation and gender identity. The authors conducted a search of published studies on Medline (from January 1948 to December 2019). The evidence suggests that the sexual dimorphic brain could be the anatomical substrate of psychosexual development, on which gonadal hormones may have a shaping role during prenatal and pubertal periods. Additionally, according to several heritability studies, genetic components may have a role, but a promising candidate gene has not been identified. Even though growing evidence underlines the primary role of biological factors on psychosexual development, further studies are necessary to better explain their complex interactions.

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Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Brain Sex Differences Related to Gender Identity Development: Genes or Hormones?

Ristori

Cocchetti

Romani

et al. 2020

IJMS

Self Cite

View full text Add to dashboard Cite

show abstract

“…Several studies support a genetic component in GD (35,36). In a literature review of twin studies, including unpublished cases from specialized centers, it was possible to show a significantly higher concordance for GD among monozygotic twins than among samesex dizygotic twins (37,38).…”

Section: Etiological Hypothesesmentioning

confidence: 98%

MANAGEMENT OF ENDOCRINE DISEASE: Approach to the management of children and adolescents with Gender Dysphoria

Martinerie

Condat

Bargiacchi

et al. 2018

European Journal of Endocrinology

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Over the past 20 years, the care for transgender adolescents has developed throughout many countries following the "Dutch Approach" initiated in the 90's in pioneer countries as the Netherlands, United States and Canada, with increasing numbers of children and adolescents seeking care in transgender clinics. This medical approach has considerable positive impacts on the psychological outcomes of these adolescents and several studies have been recently published underlining the relative safety of such treatments. This paper reviews the current standards of care for transgender children and adolescents with particular emphasis on disparities among countries and short to medium-term outcomes. Finally it highlights ethical considerations regarding categorization of gender dysphoria, timing of treatment initiation, infertility, and how to deal with the long-term consequences.

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“…The origin of sexual orientation is far from being understood, although there is no proof that it is affected by social factors after birth. On the other hand, a large amount of empirical data suggests that genes and hormones are important regulators of sexual orientation . Useful animal models and experimental paradigms in animals have helped frame questions and propose hypotheses relevant to human sexual orientation.…”

Section: Sexual Orientationmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…On the other hand, a large amount of empirical data suggests that genes and hormones are important regulators of sexual orientation. [49][50][51] Useful animal models and experimental paradigms in animals have helped frame questions and propose hypotheses relevant to human sexual orientation.…”

Section: Sexual Orientationmentioning

confidence: 99%

Neurobiology of gender identity and sexual orientation

Roselli

2018

J Neuroendocrinology

103

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Sexual identity and sexual orientation are independent components of a person's sexual identity. These dimensions are most often in harmony with each other and with an individual's genital sex, but not always. This review discusses the relationship of sexual identity and sexual orientation to prenatal factors that act to shape the development of the brain and the expression of sexual behaviors in animals and humans. One major influence discussed relates to organizational effects that the early hormone environment exerts on both gender identity and sexual orientation. Evidence that gender identity and sexual orientation are masculinized by prenatal exposure to testosterone and feminized in it absence is drawn from basic research in animals, correlations of biometric indices of androgen exposure and studies of clinical conditions associated with disorders in sexual development. There are, however, important exceptions to this theory that have yet to be resolved.Family and twin studies indicate that genes play a role, but no specific candidate genes have been identified. Evidence that relates to the number of older brothers implicates maternal immune responses as a contributing factor for male sexual orientation. It remains speculative how these influences might relate to each other and interact with postnatal socialization. Nonetheless, despite the many challenges to research in this area, existing empirical evidence makes it clear that there is a significant biological contribution to the development of an individual's sexual identity and sexual orientation.

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The molecular mechanisms of sexual orientation and gender identity

Cited by 40 publications

References 186 publications

Brain Sex Differences Related to Gender Identity Development: Genes or Hormones?

Brain Sex Differences Related to Gender Identity Development: Genes or Hormones?

MANAGEMENT OF ENDOCRINE DISEASE: Approach to the management of children and adolescents with Gender Dysphoria

Neurobiology of gender identity and sexual orientation

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