The Moderating Role of Cortisol and Negative Emotionality in the Effects of Classroom Size and Window View on Young Children’s Executive Functions

Abstract

This study probed how baseline cortisol (BC), negative emotionality (NE), and environmental facets—classroom size and window view—interact to affect executive function (EF) in preschoolers using virtual reality (VR). In a cohort of 144 children aged 61–85 months, BC levels were measured by saliva assays and NE by parental surveys. Participants completed computerized EF assessments both pre- and post-exposure to one of four VR conditions, which varied by classroom size (large vs. small) and window view (natural vs. built). Due to missing data and outlier responses, three children were removed from the analyses. Regression analyses, accounting for initial EFs, revealed that higher BC was significantly associated with better Digit-span task scores in the nature view, while lower BC correlated with improved performance in the built view. With regard to classroom size, children with varying levels of NE benefitted from the large classroom environment, as evidenced by marginally significant improvements on the Corsi block task. However, higher NE children outperformed their lower NE peers in the large classroom, while a trend inverted in the small classroom context. The findings illuminate how the physical components of preschool environments may interact with children’s physiological reactivity, potentially influencing the development of working memory.