The Mass–metallicity Relation for Giant Planets

Thorngren, Daniel; Fortney, Jonathan J.; Murray-Clay, Ruth; Lopez, Eric

doi:10.3847/0004-637x/831/1/64

Cited by 356 publications

(535 citation statements)

References 100 publications

(84 reference statements)

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“…Figure 4 shows the total mass of heavy elements in the hot Jupiter (MZ ) as a function of their seed's initial injection place and time in the case of complete core erosion. The values we find are in line with the indirect retrieval method of Thorngren et al (2015). Planets forming earlier and further out in the disk have higher isolation masses and thus higher MZ 1 .…”

Section: Case: Solar Chemistrysupporting

confidence: 78%

Disentangling hot Jupiters formation location from their chemical composition

Ali-Dib

2017

Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society

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We use a population synthesis model that includes pebbles and gas accretion, planetary migration, and a simplified chemistry scheme to study the formation of hot-Jupiters. Models have been proposed that these planets can either originate beyond the snowline and then move inward via disk migration, or form "in-situ" inside the snowline. The goal of this work is to verify which of these two scenarios is more compatible with pebble accretion, and whether we can distinguish observationally between them via the resulting planetary C/O ratios and core masses. Our results show that, for solar system composition, the C/O ratios will vary but moderately between the two populations, since a significant amount of carbon and oxygen are locked up in refractories. In this case, we find a strong correlation between the carbon and oxygen abundances and core mass. The C/O ratio variations are more pronounced in the case where we assume that all carbon and oxygen are in volatiles. On average, Hot-Jupiters forming "in-situ" inside the snowline will have higher C/O ratios because they accrete less water ice. However, only Hot-Jupiters forming in-situ around stars with C/O=0.8 can have a C/O ratio higher than unity. We finally find that, even with fast pebble accretion, it is significantly easier to form Hot-Jupiters outside of the snowline, even if forming these "in-situ" is not impossible in the limit of the simplifying assumptions made.

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Section: Case: Solar Chemistrysupporting

confidence: 78%

Disentangling hot Jupiters formation location from their chemical composition

Ali-Dib

2017

Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society

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“…14). These high heavy element contents agree at least in an approximate way with the observationally inferred values (Thorngren et al 2016) as discussed in detail in Sect. 5.1.8.…”

Section: Uncertainties Related To the Core-mass Effectsupporting

confidence: 72%

“…In the solar system, the highest total heavy element content of Jupiter allowed by internal structure models is about 42 M ⊕ for adiabatic models and the SCvH EOS (Guillot & Gautier 2014), while for semi-convective models up to 63 M ⊕ are possible (Leconte & Chabrier 2012). Concerning exoplanets, thanks to recent analyses (Miller & Fortney 2011;Thorngren et al 2016) of the mass-radius relation of warm Jupiters without significant bloating, it is now possible to infer observationally estimates of the heavy element mass contained in planets also outside the solar system. While these analyses are (as those for Jupiter) affected by many uncertainties, e.g., regarding the equation of state and cannot yield (in contrast to the solar system) information about the distribution of the heavy elements within the planet (in the core or mixed throughout the envelope) they still significantly increase the number of planets with heavy element estimates and allow to make statistical inferences.…”

Section: Comparison With Observed Forming Companions: Hd 100546 B Andmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…For low-mass planets, this enrichment mostly by water (for a formation outside of the iceline) can be very high . For giant planets that are at the focus of this paper because of their better detectability, the planet metallicity Z should usually be rather low at least during the evolution phase with Z ∼ 0.1 (Thorngren et al 2016). These processes, if occurring frequently in a statistical sense, imprint into the statistical quantities like the luminosity distribution or mass-luminosity relation that we study here.…”

Section: Simplifications For the Eos And Statistical Imprintsmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…Accepting these caveats, and the fact that these analyses apply to planets inside of 1 AU, while in the context of direct imaging one is mainly interested in planets further out, then the aforementioned analyses also indicate that rather high heavy element contents seem to be quite common in giant exoplanets. Specifically, for a sample of 47 planets with masses between about 0.1 and 10 M , Thorngren et al (2016) Burrows et al (1997) and Marley et al (2007), respectively. of less than 1 AU are included as in the sample of Thorngren et al (2016), and M Z /M ⊕ ≈ 63(M/M ) 0.26 if all orbital distances are included.…”

Section: Comparison With Observed Forming Companions: Hd 100546 B Andmentioning

confidence: 99%

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Characterization of exoplanets from their formation

Mordasini

Marleau

Mollière

2017

A&A

107

142

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Context. This paper continues a series in which we predict the main observable characteristics of exoplanets based on their formation. In Paper I we described our global planet formation and evolution model that is based on the core accretion paradigm. In Paper II we studied the planetary mass-radius relationship with population syntheses. Aims. In this paper we present an extensive study of the statistics of planetary luminosities during both formation and evolution. Our results can be compared with individual directly imaged extrasolar (proto)planets and with statistical results from surveys. Methods. We calculated three populations of synthetic planets assuming different efficiencies of the accretional heating by gas and planetesimals during formation. We describe the temporal evolution of the planetary mass-luminosity relation. We investigate the relative importance of the shock and internal luminosity during formation, and predict a statistical version of the post-formation mass vs. entropy "tuning fork" diagram. Because the calculations now include deuterium burning we also update the planetary mass-radius relationship in time.Results. We find significant overlap between the high post-formation luminosities of planets forming with hot and cold gas accretion because of the core-mass effect. Variations in the individual formation histories of planets can still lead to a factor 5 to 20 spread in the post-formation luminosity at a given mass. However, if the gas accretional heating and planetesimal accretion rate during the runaway phase is unknown, the post-formation luminosity may exhibit a spread of as much as 2-3 orders of magnitude at a fixed mass. As a key result we predict a flat log-luminosity distribution for giant planets, and a steep increase towards lower luminosities due to the higher occurrence rate of low-mass (M 10-40 M ⊕ ) planets. Future surveys may detect this upturn. Conclusions. Our results indicate that during formation an estimation of the planetary mass may be possible for cold gas accretion if the planetary gas accretion rate can be estimated. If it is unknown whether the planet still accretes gas, the spread in total luminosity (internal+accretional) at a given mass may be as large as two orders of magnitude, therefore inhibiting the mass estimation. Due to the core-mass effect even planets which underwent cold accretion can have large post-formation entropies and luminosities, such that alternative formation scenarios such as gravitational instabilities do not need to be invoked. Once the number of self-luminous exoplanets with known ages and luminosities increases, the resulting luminosity distributions may be compared with our predictions.

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Magnetic Fields and Accreting Giant Planets around PDS 70

Hasegawa¹,

Kanagawa²,

Turner³

2020

Preprint

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The recent high spatial/spectral resolution observations have enabled constraining formation mechanisms of giant planets, especially at the final stages. The current interpretation of such observations is that these planets undergo magnetospheric accretion, suggesting the importance of planetary magnetic fields. We explore the properties of accreting, magnetized giant planets surrounded by their circumplanetary disks, using the physical parameters inferred for PDS 70 b/c. We compute the magnetic field strength and the resulting spin rate of giant planets, and find that these planets may possess dipole magnetic fields of either a few 10 G or a few 100 G; the former is the natural outcome of planetary growth and radius evolution, while the resulting spin rate cannot reproduce the observations. For the latter, a consistent picture can be drawn, where strong magnetic fields induced by hot planetary interiors lead both to magnetospheric accretion and to spin-down due to disk locking. We also compute the properties of circumplanetary disks in the vicinity of these planets, taking into account planetary magnetic fields. The resulting surface density becomes very low, compared with the canonical models, implying the importance of radial movement of satellite-forming materials. Our model predicts a positive gradient of the surface density, which invokes the traps for both satellite migration and radially drifting dust particles. This work thus concludes that the final formation stages of giant planets are similar to those of low-mass stars such as brown dwarfs, as suggested by recent studies.

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The Mass–metallicity Relation for Giant Planets

Cited by 356 publications

References 100 publications

Disentangling hot Jupiters formation location from their chemical composition

Disentangling hot Jupiters formation location from their chemical composition

Characterization of exoplanets from their formation

Magnetic Fields and Accreting Giant Planets around PDS 70

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